Cell Respiration

• The Calvin cycle, also known as the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis, uses ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions to fix carbon dioxide and produce three-carbon sugars

  
• Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose into energy, starting with glycolysis breaking down glucose into pyruvate, then converting it into acetyl-CoA that enters the citric acid cycle

  
• The citric acid cycle, or Krebs cycle, occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells, generating ATP by converting acetyl-CoA into citrate, isocitrate, α-ketoglutarate, succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, and malate

  
• The citric acid cycle begins with the acetyl group from acetyl-CoA combining with oxaloacetate to form citrate, which is then converted through a series of reactions to form isocitrate, α-ketoglutarate, succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, and malate

  
• Oxidative phosphorylation is the process by which mitochondria generate ATP, with NADH passing electrons to the electron transport chain, leading to the regeneration of ATP

  
• Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose into energy, starting with glycolysis breaking down glucose into pyruvate, which is then converted into acetyl-CoA entering the citric acid cycle

  
• The citric acid cycle, or Krebs cycle, occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells, generating energy in the form of ATP by oxidizing acetyl-CoA through a series of reactions

  
• In the citric acid cycle, the acetyl group from acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate, which is then converted through a series of reactions to form isocitrate, α-ketoglutarate, succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, and malate before being converted back to oxaloacetate

  
• Oxidative phosphorylation is the process by which mitochondria generate ATP, with NADH and FADH2 donating electrons to the electron transport chain to power ATP synthesis via chemiosmosis

  
• Facilitated diffusion, shown in , involves transport proteins enabling the movement of molecules across a membrane

  
• Exocytosis, depicted in , is a process where cells release large molecules by fusing vesicles with the cell membrane

  
• Nucleophilic substitution reaction, illustrated in , involves a nucleophile displacing a leaving group in a molecule

  
• Rayleigh scattering, shown in , explains why the sky appears blue during the day due to shorter wavelengths of light being scattered more than longer wavelengths

  
• A potential energy diagram for a chemical reaction, as in , shows the energy required for the reaction to proceed, with the transition state being the highest-energy point where reactants convert into products

  
• The Calvin cycle, also known as the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis, uses ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions to fix carbon dioxide and produce three-carbon sugars (G3P) molecules

  
• Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose into energy, starting with glycolysis breaking down glucose into pyruvate, which is then converted into acetyl-CoA entering the citric acid cycle to produce ATP, the cell's energy currency

  
• The citric acid cycle, or Krebs cycle, occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells, starting with acetyl-CoA combining with oxaloacetate to form citrate, then proceeding through a series of reactions to produce ATP, NADH, and FADH2

  
• In the citric acid cycle, the acetyl group from acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate, which is then converted to isocitrate, α-ketoglutarate, succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, and malate before being converted back to oxaloacetate to restart the cycle

  
• Oxidative phosphorylation is the process by which mitochondria generate ATP, with certain electron carriers in the electron transport chain accepting and releasing H+ along with electrons to couple redox reactions to ATP synthesis

  
• Facilitated diffusion is depicted with transport proteins enabling the diffusion of smaller molecules across the membrane

  
• The electron transport chain is located on the inner mitochondrial membrane.
• Oxygen acts as an acceptor of electrons, forming water molecules (H20) during cellular respiration.
• Electrons are passed from one carrier to another, with energy being released at each step.
• NADH and FADH2 are electron donors that transfer their electrons to the electron transport chain.
• NADH and FADH2 are electron carriers that transfer high energy electrons to the electron transport chain.
• Electron carriers accept electrons from NADH and FADH2 and pass them along the chain until they reach oxygen (O2).
• ATP synthase uses this energy to drive the formation of ATP from ADP and Pi.
• ATP synthase is a protein complex involved in the production of ATP during cellular respiration.
• ATP synthase uses the proton gradient created during electron transport to make ATP.
• Protons move through the proton channel of ATP synthase, driving the rotation of its rotor subunit.
• Chemiosmosis is the movement of protons down their concentration gradient through ATP synthase, generating ATP.
• ATP synthase uses the proton gradient generated by oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP.
• This causes the catalytic headpiece to swing around, bringing together ADP and Pi to make ATP.
• Chemiosmosis involves the movement of hydrogen ions through channels called porin proteins, creating a concentration gradient.
• The electron transport chain is located on the inner membrane of mitochondria or thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts.
• ATP synthase uses the proton gradient generated by the electron transport chain to synthesize ATP.
• The process involves the movement of protons across a membrane, which drives the synthesis of ATP.
• Virus


  • Acellular
  • Requires host to replicate
  • Exhibit a wide range of form
  • Can infect all forms of life

  
• Virus Morphology


  • Nucleic Acid Core
  • Capsid
  • Envelope (in some viruses)

  
• Nucleic Acid Core


  Viruses contain either DNA or RNA, which can be single-stranded (ss) or double-stranded (ds)