Razvojna

• Sodobna razvojna psihologija preučuje vseživljenjski razvoj, kar pomeni, da se spremljajo spremembe v posameznikovem psihičnem razvoju od spočetja do smrti
• Razvojna psihologija se osredotoča na psihološki razvoj posameznika, ki vključuje spreminjanje ali stalnost v času
• Razvojne spremembe se delijo na:

  • Količinske (kvantitativne) in kakovostne (kvalitativne) spremembe
  • Progresivne (iz enostavnejših struktur v kompleksnejše) in regresivne (iz kompleksnejših v enostavnejše)
  • Normativne/povprečne opisujejo spremembe na ravni starostnih skupin, z zanimanjem za povprečne vrednosti v določeni starostni skupini
• Opis sprememb/doslednosti:

  • **Povprečne spremembe**:
  • Povezane s povprečjem, kažejo na spremembe v vedenju pri različnih starostnih skupinah
  • Primer: ekstravertnost se poveča v mladostništvu
  • **Relativne spremembe**:
  • Neodvisne od povprečja, merijo spremembe v posameznikovi poziciji glede na določeno lastnost skozi čas
• Posebni pristopi k preučevanju sprememb/doslednosti v psihologiji vključujejo:

  • Prečni in vzdolžni pristop
  • Mikrogenetski, sekvenčni pristopi, pristop časovnega zamika
• Temeljna pristopa k preučevanju sprememb/doslednosti:

  • Prečni in vzdolžni pristop
  • Dodatni pristopi: mikrogenetski, sekvenčni pristopi, pristop časovnega zamika
• Sekvenčni pristop:

  • Pogostost: pogosteje uporabljen v odraslosti
  • Informativnost: bolj informativni kot drugi, omogočajo sklepanje na potencialne "moteče" faktorje
  • Stroški: dražji, zato je potrebno razmisliti o nujnosti uporabe
  • Omogoča preverjanje generacijskega učinka in drugih napak pri merjenju
  • Intrinzična težava: enakost mer v razvoju, kar lahko vpliva na merjenje konstrukta v različnih obdobjih
• Dejavniki zniževanja starostnih primerjav (vezano na odraslost):

  • Stališča, samozaupanje, pozornost, motivacija, način izvedbe raziskave
• Temeljne zakonitosti razvoja po Baltesu:

  1. Vseživljenjski razvoj: spremembe v psiholoških značilnostih se pojavljajo skozi vse življenje

  2. Večrazsežnosten razvoj: poznamo več dimenzij razvoja, kot so čustveno-osebnostna, biološka, spoznavna, socialna dimenzija

  3. Večsmernen razvoj: spremembe lahko potekajo hkrati v več razsežnostih
• Razvojne spremembe se pojavljajo skozi vse življenje, pri čemer niso vse enako hitre, kakovostne ali velike, vendar se spremembe vseeno dogajajo
• Večrazsežnosten (večdimenzionalen) razvoj pozna več dimenzij, vključno s čustveno-osebnostno, biološko, spoznavno in socialno dimenzijo
• Razvoj je večsmereen, kar pomeni, da znotraj posameznega področja lahko poteka v več smereh
• Prilagodljivost in kontekstualnost sta značilni za razvoj:

  • Razvoj je prilagodljiv, saj se ljudje v vseh starostih zmožni prilagajati, pri čemer je prilagodljivost odvisna tudi od starosti
  • Kontekstualnost pomeni, da kontekst, v katerem posameznik živi, lahko vpliva in spremeni potek razvoja
• Sistem konteksta vključuje:

  • Starostno normativni sistem, ki je kulturno pogojen in se razlikuje v različnih okoljih
  • Zgodovinsko normativni sistem, ki vpliva na razvoj posameznika glede na starost, ločimo specifične, globalne in univerzalne normative
• Normativne sisteme doživljajo številni/vsi posamezniki v določenem okolju, kot je splošna uporaba kontracepcije, vojna, računalniška revolucija, internet/družbena omrežja in epidemije.
• It's difficult to distinguish between biological and social norms as they are often interconnected and inseparable
• Non-normative systems are factors experienced by individuals and not the majority in an environment, like child death, teenage pregnancy, abuse, and "non-events" (expected events that do not occur, e.g., infertility)
• Developmental placement in a socio-developmental context
• Genetic factors contributing to interpersonal differences:

  • Common genetic factors (inherited) originate from parental genetic contributions or prenatal factors
  • Common environmental factors influence individuals who share (shared environment) or do not share (non-shared environment) the environment, contributing to differences among individuals living together
  • They can have indirect/direct effects on the phenotype, including genetic effects on environmental measures and the interaction between genetic and environmental effects on the phenotype
• Genetic and environmental influences on phenotype:

  • Interaction between genetic and environmental effects on the phenotype involves genetic sensitivity to the environment
  • The interaction doesn't result in an additive effect but means that the same environment affects individuals in different ways
• There is a distinction between the additive effect and the interaction effect between genotype and environment on the phenotype
• Additive effect:

  • All inherited genetic factors + all non-inherited factors = behavioral phenotype
  • Both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the expression of traits
• In an experiment with mice, two groups were created: "Smart" and "Dumb" based on their performance in a maze; they were raised in normal or enriched environments, showing that genetically identical individuals develop differently in different environments
• GT1 - genotype 1 - less intelligent mice (result of crossing low-intelligence generations)

  • GT2 - genotype 2 - highly intelligent mice (result of crossing high-intelligence generations)
• Development depends on inherited factors and environmental influences, as observed in the experiment with mice
• Genetic factors and environmental factors influence the development of individuals
• GT1 - genotype 1: less intelligent mice, formed by crossing low-intelligence mice multiple times
• There are usual and stimulating environments, with highly intelligent mice making fewer mistakes in the usual environment
• The interaction effect between genotype and environment on phenotype is significant
• The same environment affects individuals with a specific genotype, but not others
• Indirect effects of exposure to the environment can influence certain traits
• In a study on mice, a stimulating environment affected the cognitive abilities of less intelligent rats, but not the intelligent ones
• In an adoption study, children inherited a certain level of genetic risk from their biological parents
• Two groups of adopted children were compared based on their biological parents' criminal history, showing the impact of genetics and environment on behavior
• Study on adopted children:

  • Two groups: children of parents convicted of a crime and children of law-abiding parents
  • Divided based on the environment they grew up in: stressful (alcohol, violence) and non-stressful environment
• Research findings:

  • Low-stress environment group had relatively low risk of behavioral disorders
  • Individuals with genetically inherited lower risk also had low risk in low-stress environment
  • High-stress environment showed increased risk for those with genetically inherited high risk → significant differences in high-stress environment
• Children of delinquents and children of "normal" parents showed no differences in a non-stressful environment
• Molecular study on youth transitioning to adulthood:

  • Alleles types: KK, KD, DD (short, long)
  • Correlated with the number of stressful events
• Developmental periods from adolescence onwards:

  • Adolescence divided into early, middle, late stages transitioning into adulthood
  • Adulthood divided into early, middle, late stages
• Characteristics of adolescence:

  • Rapid physical changes
  • Growth spurt (in height) during puberty (biological changes)