computer science

• Stacks are a type of data structure that follows the Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) principle, where the last element added is the first one to be removed.
• Memory Address Register (MAR):

  • Purpose: Holds the memory address from which data will be fetched to the CPU or written from the CPU to the memory
  • Operation: When the CPU decides to read or write data, the address of the data is first loaded into the MAR
• Memory Data Register (MDR):

  • Function: Temporarily holds the data being transferred to or from the memory
  • Role: Acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

  • Purpose: Responsible for performing all arithmetic and logical operations in the CPU
  • Operations: Executes basic arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, and logical operations like AND, OR, NOT, and XOR
  • Significance: The efficiency and complexity of the ALU dictate the CPU's performance in processing mathematical and logical tasks
• Control Unit (CU):

  • Function: Orchestrates the CPU's operations by instructing the ALU, memory, and I/O devices on how to respond to instructions from the computer's memory
  • Activity: Decodes instructions, coordinates and manages data flow in and out of the CPU, ALU, and memory
  • Role in CPU: Directs other parts of the system to execute program instructions, does not execute them itself
• • L1 cache is smallest in size but offers the highest speed. It's typically integrated directly within the CPU chip.
  • L2 cache, larger than L1, is either incorporated into the CPU or situated very close to it.
  • L3 cache, common in multi-core processors, is shared among the cores and is slower but larger than L1 and L2.
• Business

  • Decision-making company or organization
  • May/may not be for profit
  • Involves the exchange of goods and services
  • Produce goods and/or provide services
  • Exist to satisfy the needs and wants of people, organizations, governments, etc.
• Enterprise


  A group of people that tackles an objective, usually profit
• Quality of output


  Depends on quality of inputs
• Main inputs in a business

  • Capital
  • Land
  • Labor/manpower
  • Enterprise/entrepreneurship
• Capital


  • Amount of money needed to run a business
  • Man-made goods like machines, buildings, vehicles, and equipment needed for business to operate
• Investment


  Increasing spending on capital
• Land


  • Space where a business operates
  • Raw materials and natural resources that are used in making a product
• Labor/manpower


  Physical & mental efforts of people to produce products/services
• Enterprise/entrepreneurship


  • Management, organization, and planning of other three factors of production
  • Actions of entrepreneur who shows initiative and takes risks to set up, invest, and run a business
• Main business functions and their roles

  1. Human resources - Manages the workforce and laborers of the company, Deals with recruitment, wages, communication, and motivation of employees

  2. Finance and accounts - In charge of managing the organization’s money and assets, Ensures accurate recording and reporting of financial documentation (to comply with legal requirements)

  3. Marketing - Ensure that a company’s products sell, Concerned with identifying and satisfying consumers’ needs/wants, In charge of promotions, advertisements, etc.

  4. Operations - In charge of business functions and processes that produce the actual goods, Concerned with research & development, delivery, stock management, etc.
• Business sectors (or economic sectors)

  • Primary
  • Secondary
  • Tertiary
  • Quaternary
• Primary sector

  • Involves the harvesting of naturally available resources, e.g. mining, agriculture, livestock, drilling, and logging, Regulated and protected by the government, Fuels (produces inputs for) the other economic sectors, Example countries: Vietnam, Philippines, Canada, Dubai, Example companies: Philex Mining, Del Monte, Dole
• Secondary sector

  • Involves manufacturing of raw products to finished or component goods, Finished goods – exported or sold to domestic consumers, Component goods – sold to companies in the tertiary sector, Example countries: China, Scotland, Japan, Italy, USA, Example companies: Coca-Cola, Honda, Del Monte
• Tertiary sector


  • Involved with service and retail, Includes retail sales, transportation, entertainment, restaurants, media, healthcare, banking, etc., Exploited in developing countries, Philippines is a victim of brain drain: where professionals go abroad to look for jobs making it difficult for companies in the tertiary sector to find the employees they need, Relies on the primary and secondary sector for inputs, Example countries: USA, United Kingdom, Singapore, Hong Kong, Example companies: JP Morgan, Convergys, Lotte
• Quaternary sector

  • Involves intellectual activities or innovation services, Includes government, education, libraries, scientific research, information technology, etc.
• Impact of sectoral change

  Change in economic structure (primary to secondary, secondary to tertiary, etc.)
• Industrialization


  When a country moves towards the manufacturing sector as its principal output and employment (primary to secondary), Products become more refined and have more export potential, Raises the standard of education, Opens better job opportunities, Developed nation exploits the tertiary sector as the national output of employment, Further raises the standard of education
• Effects of shifting to the tertiary sector

  • For a labor-intensive manufacturer of aluminum cans - Quality of products improve, More distributors, Less employees and higher wages for employees, Can consider turning to robots and machines, as well as outsourcing
  • For the owner of a small seaside bed and breakfast - Easier to find competent employees, More income due to higher demand, More competition, People would rather work for bigger companies, Can consider expanding
  • For a family-owned vegetable farm - More demand due to more stores, Opportunity for a “dampa” system, Less laborers, Can consider opening a small business or outsource
• Entrepreneurship vs. intrapreneurship

  Entrepreneurship is the process of starting a business, company, or organization
• The Entrepreneur
• The founder, and usually owner
• Big risk, big reward
• Organizes inputs of produc
• Entrepreneurship


  The process of starting a business, company, or organization
• Entrepreneur

  • Founder and usually owner
  • Organizes inputs of production into goods and services
  • Obtains money, buys the inputs needed, and makes decisions
  • Takes risks and provides the vision for the business idea
  • Assumes large financial risk
  • Provides sufficient resources
• Entrepreneurs take big risks for big rewards
• Intrapreneurship


  Similar to entrepreneurship but done in an existing organization
• Intrapreneur


  • Employee of the organization
  • Uses resources of the company to undertake projects and risks very little
  • Rewarded in the form of a paycheck
  • Does not act autonomously like an entrepreneur as dependent on other employees or the organization
• Reasons for starting up a business or an enterprise

  • Profit
  • Fame
  • Benefit human welfare
  • Very fulfilling
  • Family
  • Legacy
• Common steps in starting up a business

  • Look for market opportunities
  • Niche markets where small businesses can easily compete
• Factors to consider

  • Business idea
  • 4 business inputs (capital, land, labor, and enterprise)
  • Four departments/functional areas
  • Possible problems faced by a start-up (internal or external)
• Possible internal problems faced by a start-up

  • No land to establish a business
  • Product may not appeal to the location
  • Lack of manpower
• Possible external problems faced by a start-up

  • Terrorists
  • Politics or government
  • National Calamities
  • Limited resources
• Business plan


  A report detailing aims and objectives of a business, serves as a blueprint to address startup issues, meant for investors/banks to decide on investments/loans