Carbohydrates

• Lactose is a disaccharide composed of galactose and glucose linked through a beta-1,4 bond.
• Carbohydrates are essential in living systems and medicine, with carbohydrate-based or -modified therapeutics extensively used in cardiovascular and hematological treatments
• Carbohydrates perform various biological roles and are found in a wide array of sources
• Monosaccharides and disaccharides are soluble in water, while polysaccharides require heat to dissolve due to their complexity
• Monosaccharides and disaccharides taste sweet, while polysaccharides taste bland
• Carbohydrates can undergo hydrolysis, reduce metals, form osazones with phenylhydrazine, be fermented to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide, and be metabolized
• Photosynthesis is the process where carbohydrates are synthesized, using carbon dioxide as a starting material
• Sucrose is the first sugar produced in photosynthesis and serves as the main transport material
• Steps in the biosynthesis of sucrose include converting fructose 6-phosphate to glucose 1-phosphate, which then reacts with UTP uridylyltransferase to form UDP-glucose, leading to the formation of sucrose
• Dextrose, also known as D-glucose, is used as a nutrient and in various pharmaceutical products like injections and tablets
• Dextrose excipient, derived from starch, is used as a sweetening agent, tablet binder, coating agent, and pharmaceutic aid
• Calcium gluconate, derived from gluconic acid, is used as an electrolyte replenisher in therapeutic applications
• Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose, found in plants like sugar cane and sugar beets, used as a sweetener in food and beverages

  
• Fructose, also known as fruit sugar, is a ketone sugar that is half as sweet as glucose, freely soluble in water, and used in food for diabetic patients and infant feeding formulas
• Xylose, derived from corn cobs and straw, is a sweet-tasting sugar not metabolized by mammalian enzymes, used as a diagnostic agent for intestinal absorption evaluation
• Lactose, or milk sugar, is found in cow's milk, stable in air, and hydrolyzed to yield glucose and galactose, used as a nutrient in infant food and as an inert diluent for drugs
• Lactulose, a semisynthetic sugar derived from lactose, remains unchanged in the colon and is used as a laxative and to decrease blood ammonia concentration in portal systemic encephalopathy
• The Embden-Meyerhof pathway involves the anaerobic conversion of glucose to pyruvic acid by glycolysis, with pyruvic acid potentially converted to lactic acid or ethanol
• The oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid yields acetyl coenzyme A, which can be utilized in various reactions, including the biosynthesis of fatty acids or steroids
• The Tricarboxylic acid cycle oxidizes acetyl-CoA to CO2 and water, liberating energy
• The regenerative "sugar-shuffle" phase of the pentose phosphate pathway converts ribulose-5-phosphate to G-6-Phosphate
• Cherry juice, from Prunus cerasus, contains malic acid and is used to prepare cherry syrup as a flavored vehicle in pharmaceutical mixtures
• Citric acid, sourced from lemons, limes, and pineapples, is a tricarboxylic acid used in buffering systems and as an acidulant in effervescent formulations
• Ferric gluconate is used as a hematinic agent with a dose of 200 mg 3-4 times a day
• Lactic acid, with 85-90% lactic acid content, is used as an acidulant in infant feeding formulas and as an electrolyte replenisher in sodium lactate injection
• Tartaric acid, a dicarboxylic acid sourced from wine, is used as a substitute for citric acid in buffer systems and effervescent formulations
• Mannitol, a hexahydric alcohol, is used as a laxative, diagnostic aid, and osmotic diuretic
• Sorbitol, a hexitol, is used in toothpaste, chewing gums, dietetic products, and dietetic beverages in conjunction with saccharin as an osmotic laxative
• Honey, a viscid secretion stored by bees, is used as a sweetening agent in confectionaries and as a demulcent for coughs, colds, and sore throats
• Starch, produced in large quantities in green leaves as a temporary storage form of photosynthetic products, is composed of amylose and amylopectin
• Amylose, a linear molecule in starch, is more soluble in water and reacts with iodine to form a deep blue complex
• Amylopectin, consisting of glucose units linked by α-1,4 and α-1,6 linkages, is less soluble in water and reacts with iodine to form a blue-violet or purple color
• Amylose is a linear polymer of glucose molecules, while amylopectin is a branched polymer of glucose molecules

  
• Amylopectin's branching is caused by the presence of α-1,6-glycosidic bonds
• Dextran is a plasma expander available in a 6% solution and may interfere with some laboratory tests and significantly increase clotting time
• Dextran, a-1,6-linked polyglucan, is formed from sucrose by the action of an enzyme system, transglucosylase, present in Leuconostoc mesenteroides
• Cellulose derivatives include methylcellulose, ethylcellulose, hydroxyethylcellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, pyroxylin, oxidized cellulose, oxidized regenerated cellulose, cellulose acetate phthalate, and sodium carboxymethylcellulose
• Cellulose derivatives have various uses such as tablet binders, film coatings, thickening agents, stabilizers, and ingredients in formulations like artificial tears
• Cellulose derivatives like methylcellulose are used as bulk laxatives, suspending agents, and topical protectants marketed as "artificial tears"
• Cellulose derivatives like ethylcellulose are used as tablet binders and film coatings