glycosides

• Pharmacognosy is the knowledge of drugs or pharmaceuticals, with its scope covering botany, organic medicinal chemistry, quality control, research, and focusing on identification of plants & animals, chemistry, evaluation, preservation, toxicology, history, distribution, collection, selection, preparation, and commerce
• Ancient beliefs in pharmacognosy involved potions from plants and animals to eliminate pain, control suffering, and counteract disease, evolving from mysterious incantations to specific therapeutic agents
• In China, Shen Nung's first Pen Tsao included 365 drugs categorized into emperor herbs, minister herbs, and servant herbs, while the Sui Dynasty saw a blossom of study on herbal medicine and book creation
• In India, Ayurveda developed from Rigveda & Atharvaveda, focusing on the study of life and origin, with important writings like Charaka Samhita and Susruta Samhita
• Ancient Greece & Rome contributed to pharmacognosy through figures like Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Paracelsus, while the Babylonians used clay models of the human body for study
• Pharmacognosy has a rich history with contributions from figures like Discorides, Pliny, Claudius Galen, and modern developments in extraction, separation, isolation, and identification of components/constituents
• PharmChem CARES provides support to patients who can't afford medications

  
• Cholesterol's chemical structure

  
• Dexamethasone's chemical structure

  
• Methyl ergometrine transforms into ergometrine
• Steroid hormones are derived from Diosgenin by acetolysis & oxidation
• Cortisone is produced by microbial reactions
• Technical products like beverages, condiments, confectionaries, and spices can also be natural products used as drugs or therapeutic aids
• Examples of natural and synthetic products:

  • Natural products are found in nature composed of whole plants & herbs, including animals, with no changes in molecular structure (e.g., Camphor)
  • Synthetic products have drug constituents partially replaced (e.g., Camphor)
• Crude drugs are plants or animals subjected only to drying or slicing, not improved by further processing like grinding or distilling
• Collection & Drying are steps in preparing crude drugs to prevent microbial contamination and inhibit enzyme reactions
• Extractive, marc, and menstruum are terms related to the extraction process of crude drugs
• Examples of crude drugs include Senak as a laxative and Nux vomica to isolate strychnine
• Habitat or geographical source indicates the region where the plant/animal yielding the drug grows
• Cultivation of medicinal plants is influenced by factors like altitude, temperature, rainfall, and soil fertility
• Preparation of crude drugs involves collection, harvesting, drying, garbling, packaging, storage, and preservation
• Evaluation of drugs includes assessing purity, adulteration, substitution, spoilage, deterioration, and inferiority
• Methods of drug evaluation include organoleptic, microscopic, biological/bioassay, chemical, and physical evaluation
• Classification of drugs with natural origins can be organized or unorganized, based on cellular organization or lack thereof
• Classification of plant drugs can be alphabetical, morphological, or taxonomical, based on names, structure, or plant families
• Attachment is a strong reciprocal emotional bond between an infant and a primary caregiver

  
• Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study on attachment:

  • Aim: identify stages of attachment / find a pattern in the development of an attachment between infants and parents
  • Participants: 60 babies from Glasgow
  • Procedure: analysed interactions between infants and carers
  • Findings: babies of parents/carers with 'sensitive responsiveness' were more likely to have formed an attachment
• Freud's superego represents internalized societal values and standards
• Chemotaxonomical Classification:

  • Relies on chemical similarity of a taxon
  • Latest system of classification
  • Example: Tropane alkaloids in Solanaceae
• Serotaxonomical Classification:

  • Application of serology
  • Involves antigen-antibody reaction
• Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy ketones & polyhydroxy aldehydes containing CHO in a 2:1 ratio
• Carbohydrates are the first products of photosynthesis with a general formula of CnH2nOn or Cn(H2O)n or (CH2O)n
• Monosaccharides are classified based on characteristics like the placement of the carbonyl group, the number of carbons, and chiral handedness
• Monosaccharides include triose, tetrose, pentose, hexose, heptose, and octulose
• Polysaccharides include homoglycan and heteroglycan
• Starch hydrolysis products include dextrin, maltotriose, liquid glucose, maltose, and dextrose
• Hydrolytic enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism include ptalyin, amylopsin, alpha amylase, beta amylase, and alpha glucosidase
• Products of sugar metabolism can be oxidative (JPA - Juices, Plant Acid, Alcohol) or reductive (SA - Sugar Alcohol)
• Carbohydrates are products of photosynthesis, with two classes of reactions: light reaction and dark reaction
• Oligosaccharides like sucrose, maltose, and lactose have specific sources, constituents, uses, and other notes