Chapter 5 - Forces of Instability

• How did rivalry over the Balkans change between Austria-Hungary and Russia in 1897?


  Previously, the powers had experienced tense relations with one another as each bordered the Balkan region and had conflicting interests there, however, by 1897 there was a sort of detente between the powers
• What does the term "detente" mean?

  An improvement in relations between countries which had previously been strained
• What agreement was signed in 1897?


  An agreement of preservation of the status quo in the Balkans between AH and Russia
• What was agreed in the Austro-Russian agreement 1897?


  - Neither power would attempt to alter the balance of power within the Balkans

  
  

  - Both powers would oppose any other power which tried to gain territory in the Balkans

  
  

  - Both accepted that the Black Sea Straits were closed to warships when Turkey was at peace

  
  

  - If the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) collapsed, AH could annex the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as formally agreed in 1878
• What happened in May 1903?

  The pro-Austrian King and Queen of Serbia were murdered by a group of Serbian army officers - known as the Serbian Military Coup
• What does the term "coup" mean?

  A violent seizure of power
• Who was the Serbian King replaced by and what did this mean for Serbia?


  Paul I from the pro-Russian Karageorgevic dynasty became the King of Serbia, and, alongside the military coup, this marked the beginning of a far more aggressive Serbian foreign policy
• What were Paul I's views on what Serbian foreign policy should be?

  Paul and his government encouraged the growth of Serb nationalism and were far less concerned about maintaining friendly relations with AH than their predecessors
• What was included in the ideas of Serbian nationalism?

  The Serbs saw themselves as champions of the Southern Slavs and wanted to form a united Slav state called Yugoslavia, comprising of Croats, Slovenes and Slavs as well as creating a Greater Serbia including Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Montenegro
• What groups did Serbian nationalism lead to the creation of?

  While not all inhabitants of the Serbian-desired territories favoured Serbian nationalism, all contained active nationalist groups. One such Serbian group was the Black Hand, who had unofficial links to the Serbian military and were willing to use terrorism and assassination to achieve their aims
• How did AH view Serbian nationalism?

  AH saw the growth of Serbian nationalism as a threat to the integrity of their empire, which contained around 7 million Serbs and Croats, and they were particularly concerned about Serbia's ambitions for Bosnia and Herzegovina, provinces which AH had hoped to incorporate into their empire. Croatia and Slovenia were a part of the Habsburg Empire, and nationalists from the states called for independence, leading AH to fear that a strong and increasingly assertive Serbia would inspire and support Croatian and Slovene nationalism
• How did AH policy towards Serbia develop after the 1903 Serbian coup?

  AH policy became increasingly hostile in the hopes of crushing Balkan nationalism once and for all whilst bolstering the prestige of the Habsburg monarchy
• Who advocated an aggressive approach towards Serbia?

  A faction led by the Chief of General Staff, Conrad von Hotzendorf, in Vienna. By Franz Ferdinand's assassination in 1914, Hotzendorf had advocated war more than 20 times against Serbia
• What was done by AH to curb Serbian ambitions?

  Count Aehrenthal became FM of AH in 1906 and did not renew the tariff agreements between Serbia and AH that year, leading to the "Pig War"
• What was the "Pig War" 1906-08?

  AH tried to strangle the Serbian economy by banning imports of meat from Serbia and depriving that country of an important source of revenue
• What was the outcome of the 1906-08 Pig War?


  Instead of crippling Serbia's agricultural trade, the Serbs found other export markets, such as in France and Germany, and increased their agricultural output. AH policy proved to be counterproductive - it decreased Serb dependence on the Habsburg Empire and encouraged hopes that Serbia would soon be strong enough to lead the South Slav nationalities in a bid for independence away from AH
• Who was Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal (1854-1912)?

  Became AH FM in 1906 - tried to preserve AH interests in the Balkans but was prepared to negotiate with Russia over the annexation of BH in 1908. Aehrenthal gained international acceptance of the annexation despite Russian objections. He sought a diplomatic approach to Serbia and the strengthening of the AH alliance with Germany. He died of leukaemia in Feb 1912
• Who was Franz Conrad von Hotzendorf (1852-1925)?

  AH Chief of General Staff from 1906-1916. A passionate defender of the AH Empire, recognising the threat of Serbian independence and Slav nationalism to its survival. He advocated war against Serbia 20 times before 1914, bringing him into regular conflict with the foreign ministry. Struggled to command AH forces effectively in WW1 and was dismissed by the new emperor, Karl I
• What does the term "pan-Slavism" mean?

  The nationalist ambition to unite all Slavs and win independence from non-Slav empires; south Slav nationalism refers to pan-Slavism in the Balkans
• What did the Russian defeat in the Russo-Japanese War lead to?

  Pan-Slavism became a more powerful force - the Karageorgevic dynasty in Serbia was strongly pro-Russian, as was Prince Boris of Bulgaria, who signed a military agreement with Russia in 1902
• What caused Russia's credibility as a military power to suffer?

  Its defeat in the Far East during the Russo-Japanese war - Russia had appeared to be in a strong position in this area previously, and it was the first major defeat of a Great Power by a Far Eastern power in modern times. Russian military chiefs had made some embarrassing mistakes and so it would take some years before Russian recovered its military strength
• What did the Russian government know Serbia would expect from them?

  As it held the role of "protector of the Slavs", Russia knew Serbia would expect support for its Yugoslav ambitions
• What were Russian FMs aware of despite this Serbian expectation?

  Russian FMs realised that lending support for Serbia's Yugoslav ambitions would lead to further conflict and disputes with AH, and with AH and Germany drawing closer in response to Serbia's rise and the exposure of Russian military weakness in the war against Japan, Russia knew that it had to proceed with caution
• What was discussed in 1907?


  There was some discussion of Russia reaching a new agreement with AH, but the Bosnian Crisis ended such ideas in 1908
• What damaged Russia's reputation in the Balkans?

  Russia's failure to resolve the crisis in Serbia's favour, and the resolution of the Pig War as German intervention forced Russia to cease sending aid to Serbia whilst AH's customs blockade continued
• What was Russia encouraged to do as it mounted problems in the Balkans?

  The Russian government wanted to resolve its colonial rivalry with Britain to attain further security
• When was the Anglo-Russian Agreement signed?


  1907
• What did the Anglo-Russo Agreement do?

  Formed the basis of the Triple Entente (Russia, Britain, and France) - however, these agreements involved no military commitments whereas the Triple Alliance (AH, Germany, Italy) was defensive in its aims, stating that countries would only join a war if their allies were attacked by other powers. This created rival alliance blocs in Europe
• Why were nationalism and militarism frequently interlinked?

  Intense patriotism led people to believe they required a strong military for defence and to win respect from other nations
• What did the growth of militarism and army prestige ensure?


  Ensured that many powers, especially Germany, allowed the influence of their armed forces to increase and expand, an influence which would later encourage governments to spend more on defence, increase the size of their armies and navies, and to nurture military values like discipline, physical strength, and respect for authority
• What did the increase in nationalism lead to?

  Gave many armies an inflated sense of importance
• What was the state of the status of the German army?

  Germany was the power with the most respected army amongst its own people and other powers. German military chiefs boasted that the German Army was above the scrutiny of civilian authorities and that it answered only to the Kaiser, not the Reichstag. They also believed strongly that the army was a driving force behind achieving German glory, which attracted comment from other powers, including Britain
• How did Kaiser Wilhelm II exploit the constitutional status of the German army?

  The army had the loyal support of the Kaiser, and he was rarely seen out of military uniform in public. The army swore its oath to the Kaiser, not to the people. Military elites did not have to answer to the Reichstag, and Wilhelm was later as much influenced by generals as his civilian ministers
• How did the German army ensure the support of future generations?

  The conscription of young German men for two to three years instilled in future generations the Prussian military value
• What did Kaiser Wilhelm II allow to happen in 1911?

  He allowed the Prussian army officer General Goltz to set up a league for German youth encouraging physical fitness and German pride "so that they will recognise that service to the fatherland is the highest honour of the German man"
• What happened in 1906 due to the high esteem of military personnel in Germany?

  Wilhelm Voigt was able to pull of an elaborate con by dressing as a Prussian military officer, and his uniform alone commanded so much respect amongst people he encountered that he was able to command a group of soldiers in Kopenick and "confiscate" 4000 marks from a bank
• What were the results of Voigt's deception?

  He was sentenced to 4 years in prison after his discovery and he became something of a folk hero, being nicknamed the "Captain of Kopenick"
• What did Voigt's deception bring upon Germany?

  It was deeply embarrassing - many opponents of German militarism viewed it as a warning of the dangers of the military having too strong of an influence over German politics and society
• Why was there an increase in military influence on policymaking from 1907 in Germany and Russia?

  Ministers in both states were concerned about the growing tension between AH as highlighted by the Pig War, and Russian ministers were determined to recover from the military weaknesses exposed by the Russo-Japanese War
• What was the result of growing military influence on policymaking in Germany and Russia?

  The German army was virtually autonomous, while in Russia, generals became sufficiently powerful that in 1914, they were able to threaten the Tsar with defeat if he did not allow their orders for mobilisation to go ahead