Chapter 7: Behavior and Learning

• Three different ways we learn:

  Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Social Learning Theory
• Classical Conditioning: learning that one stimulus predicts another stimulus
• Operant Conditioning: learning that behavior leads to a certain outcome, voluntary behavior to get a reward or avoid a punishment

  • B.F. Skinner & Operant Conditioning:
  • Reinforcement (+): strengthens behavior, rewards the person
  • Punishment: does not strengthen a response, alternatives should be considered
  • Types of reinforcement and punishment
• Social Learning Theory: learning by watching others and their behaviors

  • Albert Bandura:
  • Observational Learning: acquiring behaviors through observation
  • Modeling: attention, retention, motor reproduction, reinforcement
  • Vicarious Conditioning: observing others being rewarded or punished for behavior
• Associative Learning: a connection made between two events
• Ivan Pavlov is the main figure in Classical Conditioning
• • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): produces a response based on reflexes
• • Unconditioned Response (UCR): response associated with UCS
• • Neutral Stimulus (NS): becomes associated with a stimulus that has meaning
• • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): was the NS, now produces a response
• • Conditioned Response (CR): learned response to the CS that occurs after pairing of NS and UCS
• Acquisition – initial learning of the stimulus and response  
• Generalization – a new stimulus similar to original CS is presented (a bell sound, for example) 
• Discrimination – distinction between the CS stimulus and other stimuli (snapping of your finger, for example) 
• *Extinction – weakness of CR occurs because of absence of UCS (how long can behavior occur if the whistle is never ever presented with food again?)  The bond may be reduced, but it is not eliminated 
• *Spontaneous recovery – Occurs when the extinction has occurred and it has been a while, for example, that the whistle has been presented.  The whistle is presented again and learning behavior (i.e., salivation) results. This won’t last though. 
• *Extinguished – with every spontaneous recovery the CR will eventually get weaker and weaker and will eventually be extinguished. 
• Little Albert: study conducted by Dr. John Watson  

  • Mom takes Albert out of the study, so Watson never got the chance to counter condition 
  • Weakens conditioned response by associated the CS with a new UCS (something more pleasant than a loud noise) 
• Edward Thorndike: He proposed the law of effect, which states that a response is strengthened by a positive reinforcer and weakened by a negative reinforcer

  • Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened 
  • Behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened 
• Operant Conditioning: “voluntary” behavior” (i.e., the consequences will determine how I behave) 
• B.F. Skinner is main figure in Operant Conditioning
• Positive Reinforcement:

  • when a beneficial stimulus is added to a situation 
  • Increases probability that the behavior will occur 
• Negative reinforcement (- -) – when an aversive stimulus is removed from the environment  

  • Increases the probability that the behavior will occur 
  • Reducing noise, shocks, hunger pangs, pain, headaches, for example 
• • Positive punishment (- +) – an aversive stimulus is added to the environment 
  • Aversive stimulus: a spanking 
• • Negative punishment (+ -) – a positive stimulus is removed from the environment 
  • Removal of a beneficial stimulus: e.g., getting a parking ticket (which REMOVES money from your wallet)  
• *Primary reinforcer – food, water, physical comfort (by nature are satisfying) 
• *Conditioned reinforcer (aka: secondary reinforcer) …not by nature (e.g., make money to purchase physical comfort) 
• *Variable-ratio schedule – (VR) reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., slot machine; gambling) (works the best for reinforcement) 
• SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: WHEN WE LEARN BY WATCHING OTHERS AND THEIR BEHAVIORS  
• Albert Bandura is main figure in the Social Learning Theory
• Observational Learning:

  • We do what we observe 
  • We acquire behaviors through observation 
• • Modeling 
  • Attention 
  • Retention 
  • Motor reproduction 
  • Reinforcement or incentive conditions  
  • We often model behavior of people who we find attractive, having high status, and are similar to ourselves 
• Vicarious Conditioning:

  • When we observe other people being either rewarded or punished for behavior 
  •  we often will learn a behavior by observing others, but will not perform that behavior until we are rewarded for it.  This is acquisition before the actual performance of the behavior​
• Tolman is the main figure in Latent Learning
• Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without the learner being aware of it

  • Tolman's rat experiment observed that rats learned a maze without any rewards or punishments. However, this learning only became evident when a reward was introduced. This suggested that the rats had formed a cognitive map of the maze during their explorations, even though they didn't demonstrate this knowledge until it became beneficial to do so.
• Insight Learning (Kohler)—A-ha or lightbulb moments
• Instinctive Drift

  • we revert to our instinctive behaviors 
  • For instance, often you can try teaching an animal a trick, but often instinctive behaviors can take over so now animal does not do the trick 
• • Preparedness and Taste Aversion 
  • You eat or drink something that makes you sick and you never want that food or beverage again 
  • Called preparedness because you are preparing yourself for the aversion