PSYA02 - chap 4: development

• What are teratogens?

  environmental agents which can cause developmental malformations (birth defects)
• what do psychologists interested in cognitive development ask about?

  1. attention

  2. language

  3. memory
• what do psychologists interested in social development ask about?

  1. parent-child interactions

  2. sibling relationships

  3. peer interactions
• Describe ovulation


  - egg is released from one of a woman's two ovaries

  - egg travels to the uterus (which has a thick lining in preparation)

  - if unfertilized, egg and uterine lining is expelled

  - if fertilized, egg will implant in the uterine lining
• what are the three periods of prenatal development?

  1. the period of the zygote/germinal stage

  2. the period of the embryo

  3. the period of the fetus
• describe the period of the zygote

  conception - 2 weeks

  
  

  - lasts until the blastocyst implants in the uterine lining

  - primary characteristic: rapid cell division exponentially!

  - as the cells divide, they hollow out the middle and become a blastocyst

  - fertilized egg/blastocyst imbeds itself into the uterine wall

  - cell division occurring at this time is what determines if there will be one or multiple developing organisms
• What is a blastocyst?


  the hollowed-out ball of cells that implants into the uterine wall in prenatal development, ultimately to become the developing organism and its support system
• What is an ectopic pregnancy?

  a pregnancy that results from the implantation of the blastocyst into one of the fallopian tubes instead of the uterine wall
• what are monozygotic twins?

  identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo
• What are dizygotic twins?

  when a woman's ovaries release more than one egg at a time, both are fertilized simultaneously by separate sperm cells. These twins are non-identical
• describe the period of the embryo

  after the fertilized blastocyst implants into the uterus (3 weeks) - 8th week of gestation

  
  

  - primary characteristic: major developmental advances to all of the major organs and systems

  - human appearance

  - development occurs according to cephalocaudal and proximodistal principles of development

  - end: all major bodily structures are formed, but the embryo cannot survive outside of the uterine environment
• what is the cephalocaudal principle of development?


  principle indicating that development occurs from the head to the tail, or from the top down. Significant changes will occur in the head and brain before the extremities
• what is the proximodistal principle of development?

  development proceeds from the internal organs outward towards the extremities. Centrally located features such as the heart or lungs will develop significantly first, before hands and fingers
• describe the period of the fetus

  9th week - birth

  
  

  - characteristic: refinements, brain development and significant growth

  - fetus gains weight

  - fetus moves into the head-down position for birth

  - significant advances in brain development (sulci and gyri) in the last few weeks of gestation

  - fetuses learn from the world outside the uterine environment

  - LEARNING begins here as sensory ability begins

  - fetuses can discriminate between their mother and other voices (indication of learning in utero)

  - behaviours in utero can predict/be recognized outside of utero
• what are some examples of teratogens?

  Alcohol, tobacco, drugs, radiation, household chemicals, some over-the-counter medications, some viruses/illnesses, etc.
• what is considered in assessing the effects of teratogens?

  dose, timing, and cumulative effects
• When are teratogens most harmful?

  embryonic stage
• what is fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)?

  a term that encompasses a range of physical, mental, and behavioral outcomes caused by prenatal alcohol exposure, including fetal alcohol syndrome

  
  

  - damage to internal organs, altered physical appearance, and cognitive impairments
• what is some of the damage that alcohol can cause as a teratogen?

  1. damage to internal organs (results in heart or kidney problems, issues with vision or hearing)

  2. altered physical characteristics (reduced head size, shorter height, smooth patch of skin between nose and upper lip)

  3. cognitive impairments (hyperactivity, inattention, reduced intelligence, school issues)
• describe the physical characteristics of someone with fetal alcohol syndrome

  - small widely spaced eyes

  - missing ridges under nose

  - thin upper lip

  - reduced head size

  - shorter than average height
• What is a sleeper effect?

  effects of prenatal alcohol consumption that aren't evident until later, long after birth.
• What is thalidomide?


  a drug used to alleviate morning sickness that caused infants to be born with shorted or malformed limbs
• What is the Zika virus?

  a virus transmitted to humans by mosquitoes or through sexual contact with someone infected. Associated with microcephaly, restricted growth in the developing brain, and stillbirth in infants. Results in rash, itchy skin, and joint pain in pregnant individuals.

  
  

  Affected children in the long term will experience motor impairments and epilepsy

  
  

  impacts on fetal development regardless of which stage they are exposed in
• describe COVID-19 as a teratogen

  one small study revealed no evidence to indicate that COVID-19 was transmitted from pregnant individuals to infants who were born by C-section
• what is cognitive development?

  how the brain develops and how we gain skills such as: info processing, problem solving, language learning, memory, etc.
• who are the notable theorists behind infant and child cognitive development?

  Jean Piaget

  Lev Vygotsky
• Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

  - believes children are active contributors to their own knowledge; he is considered a CONSTRUCTIVIST for this

  - stated that the growth of cognitive structures occurs when individuals encounter conflicting information that changes their perspective on the world

  - assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration

  - stages of cognitive development
• What is assimilation?

  PIAGET

  
  

  the incorporation of new information into existing cognitive structures

  
  

  e.g. a child having a preconceived knowledge that their pet is a dog (has 4 legs, furry, big, etc.) and sees another dog that they place into the same category of being a dog because it shares these characteristics even if it doesn't look the same as their pet
• What is accommodation?

  PIAGET

  
  

  the creation of new cognitive structures to house new information

  
  

  e.g. having the idea of what a dog is based on your pet Bernese mountain dog and Australian Sheppard then seeing a chihuahua and making a whole new category for just chihuahuas because they don't fit into your already existing "dog" category
• what is equilibration?

  PIAGET

  
  

  states in which cognitive structures agree with external realities

  - when disequilibration occurs (things in real life don't match your cognitive structures), cognitive structures need to be modified through assimilation and accommodation so greater agreement and equilibration can occur
• What are schemas?

  PIAGET

  
  

  cluster of knowledge from experience
• what are Piaget's stages of cognitive development?

  1. sensorimotor period

  2. preoperational period

  3. concrete operational period

  4. formal operational period

  
  

  must be progressed through in order
• describe the sensorimotor period

  0 - 2 years old

  - children learn about the world largely through motor abilities

  - 6 substages
• describe the first substage of the sensorimotor period

  birth - 1 month old:

  - infants relate to the world/learn using reflexes they have available to them from birth
• describe the second substage of the sensorimotor period


  1 - 4 months old:

  - infants engage in primary circular reactions, or repeated actions on their own bodies

  - e.g. routinely sucking on different parts of their hand, learning which parts are easier to suck on

  - primary = focused on oneself

  - circular = repeated
• describe the third substage of the sensorimotor period

  4 - 8 months old:

  - infants engage in secondary circular reactions, or repeated actions on objects outside of themselves

  - e.g. dropping items off their high chairs

  - no object permanence at this time
• describe the fourth substage of the sensorimotor period?

  8 - 12 months old:

  - object permanence is achieved

  - infants combine secondary circular reactions so that they can make a sequence of events come to pass

  - e.g. moving a cloth to find a toy

  -
• What is the A-not-B task?


  Hiding an object in one area (A) where the child finds it, then hiding the object after it had been found in another area (B). The child usually returns to area A. Displays object permanence.
• describe the fifth substage of the sensorimotor period

  12 - 18 months old:

  - children engage in tertiary circular reactions as they experiment with different items in various contexts

  - e.g. banging on different objects with their hands or wooden spoons to hear the different sounds that result
• describe the sixth substage of the sensorimotor period

  18 - 24 months old:

  - children engage in mental representation, such that they can remember and act on past experiences