Challenges to popular culture

• Protestant Reformers

  Attacked unruly aspects of popular culture and focused on creating a Godly society.
• Cult of Saints

  Considered a pagan practice by reformers attacking popular culture.
• Counter-Reformation

  Led to the abandonment of popular festivals like misrule and the Feast of Fools by the Catholic Church.
• State Centralization

  In countries like France, led to crackdowns on disruptive festivals to maintain social order.
• Economic and Social Change

  Europe's doubled population, growing towns, trade, transport, agriculture, and leisure facilities.
• Withdrawal of the Elite

  Notable division in France and Britain, with clergy and nobility adopting more sophisticated behavior.
• Rational attitudes to events like witchcraft

  Adopted by the elite as part of their more sophisticated behavior.
• Printing

  Resulted in greater availability of information, entertainment, and spread of new ideas.