The "Guest Worker Program" where young men, called Braceros, could temporarily work as agricultural labourers, but the program stopped when unions complained that wages were too low.
character -> tidal waves:
Millions of migrants started coming to the USA due to high population and unemployment in Mexico. In the USA, there was work available and the differences in standard of living were appealing.
Tidal waves statistics:
over 1 mil per year in 90s
400,000 illegal immigrants in 2018
276,000 migrants with H-2 visas in 2022
4.1 million illegal immigrants in the USA in 2021
character -> counter stream:
Migrants are now leaving the USA to go back to Mexico. There were 400,000 migrants who returned in 2012. In 2017, more people left the USA than went. This is due to less work available and harsher immigration laws. India and China now have more emigrants in the USA than Mexico.
origin, destination, causes:
origin -> poorerrural areas of Mexico
destination -> agricultural regions of SW, major cities, small numbers in larger cities
Waves occur due to:
more jobs due to better US economy
unemployment in Mexico
changes in immigration policy in the USA
Immigration policy in the USA:
more H-2 visas
clamp down on illegal migration
trump government -> cross before "the wall" is finished, increased xenophobia
obstacles, barriers, constraints:
2000 km border
first section (Tortilla Curtain) is easy to crawl under
RioGrande is dangerous to swim across (swimmers are called "wet-backs")
border is patrolled, even online by citizens
gangs ("Cayotes") help illegal migrants ("pollos") to cross the border, but sometimes abandon them
after the border, there is the desert region of Arizona
visas are needed to legally be in the US
language barrier but cities near the border have a high Hispanic population
causes - push factors:
poor medical facilities ~ 1800 per doctor
low paid jobs ~ $3750 GNP
poor education ~ 55% adult literacy rates
low life expectancy ~ 72 years
unemployment ~ 40%
causes - pull factors:
good medical facilities ~ 400 per doctor
well paid jobs ~ $24,750 GNP
good education ~ 99% adult literacy rates
higher life expectancy ~ 76 years
many jobs available (DDD)
H-2 visas ~ 129,000 in 2006
positive effects - Mexico:
average wages are $60, but remittances are sent back
money from the US is increasing ~ $13 billion in 2003
remittances are important income, only after oil
negative effects - Mexico:
Axochiapan has few men and is dependent on remittances
empty villages (Jomulquillo)
fewer incentives and initiatives
difficult to find marriage partners
ageing communities
hundred of illegal immigrants die while crossing the border
positive effects - USA:
lots of cheap labour for manual jobs
negative effects - USA:
building a security fence to stop 500,000 migrants each year
tensions between ethnic groups over job availability
extreme opposition e.g. Minutemen who are citizens who patrol the border