The learning approach

• Classical conditioning 


  When a neutral stimulus (NS) is constantly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) so that it eventually takes on the properties of this stimulus and produces a conditioned response (CS)
• Operant conditioning

  Learning through reinforcement/punishment

  E.g: if a behaviour is followed by an undesirable consequence, then that behaviour is less likely to occur again in the future
• Punishment


  Applying an unpleasant consequence following a behaviour, with the result of the behaviour being unlikely to occur again
• Reinforcement 


  Anything that strengthens a response and increases the likelihood the action will occur again in the future
• Behaviourist 


  People who believe human behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning without the need to consider thoughts/feelings
• Positive reinforcement


  A behaviour produced a positive consequence which is pleasant for the doer

  E.g: a child is praised for doing well on an exam
• Negative reinforcement

  When an action removes something unpleasant so the organism is unable to feel the pain

  E.g: taking a paracetamol to cure a headache
• Pavlov's dog experiment, classical conditioning

  procedure:

  • He presented the dog with the NS (ringing bell), no response
  • Next, showed the dog the UCS of food, this created the UCR of salivating
  • He repeatedly paired the NS and the UCS together, whenever the bell rang food would appear
  • After several pairings, Pavlov rang the bell without food

  Findings:

  • the bell was now a CS and the dog produced a CR of salivating whenever the bell rang
  • The dog had been conditioned to associate the sound of the bell with food appearing

  Pavlov concluded that dogs can be conditioned to associate two objects
• A03, classical conditioning

  Applied to therapy

  CC can be used to develop treatments for phobia based anxiety

  (systematic desensitation)

  • The anxious CR associated with a feared object (the CS) is eliminated by replacing the CS with a relaxing object
  • The patient is no longer anxious in the situation as the learned CR has been eliminated
• A03, classical conditioning

  Only appropriate for some learning

  Seligman (1970)

  Relationship between CS & UCS more difficult to establish as different species have different survival challenges

  • Animals are prepared to learn some associations e.g: smell of meat = food
  • However, unprepared to learn insignificant associations e.g: Bell with food

  Classical conditioning may be more appropriate in learning specific types of association
• A03, classical conditioning

  Too simplistic

  Behaviorists have ignored other aspects involved in learning behavior & have been too simplistic

  Behavior is very complex
• A03, classical conditioning

  Lack of generalisation

  Classical conditioning mainly only uses animals to test.

  Is it accurate to apply animal to behavior to human behavior?
• Skinner's research operant conditioning

  created the Skinner box in which he placed a rat, observed its behavior

  In one part of the experiment, if the rat pressed the lever in the box it was given food, positive reinforcement,learning when the lever was pushed it would receive food (positive consequence)

  In another, the box emitted an electric current, stopped by pushing lever. Negative reinforcement learnt, he could remove the pain in the situation by pushing the lever

  Skinner concluded we can manipulate the behavior of organisms by having the organisms learn the consequences of actions
• A03, operant conditioning

  Skinner's research based on experimental work

  Experimental method is highly controlled (used in Skinner's research)

  • allowing causal relationship to be established
  • More credibility as method is objective and replicable
• A03, operant conditioning

  Skinner's research relied on animals

  Studied pigeons & rats, tells us little about human behavior

  • humans have more free will, our behavior isn't determined by positive/negative reinforcement unlike other species
• A03, operant conditioning

  Real-life application

  Reinforcement works well in a range of institutions

  e.g: prisons

  Prisons often have positive tokens where good behavior is rewarded

  Prisoners are given tokens as a reward which they can use to do as they wish e.g: extra free time

  this encourages prisoners to behave the desirable way
• A03, operant conditioning

  A limited perspective on behavior

  We cannot say human behavior is purely based on conditioning, behavior is very complex

  • There are many other factors which determine behavior

  e.g: cognition and emotions are ignored in conditioning
• Social learning theory


  Behaviour is learnt by observing a role model's behaviour and imitating the behaviour when it is rewarded

  
  

  Behaviour is more likely to be imitated if they identify with the role model they are observing (e.g: same sex)
• Modelling (SLT)


  The person who carries out (models) the behaviour so SL can take place. There are two different types of models:

  • Live models;teacher, parent - direct contact
  • Symbolic model; someone portrayed in media
• Imitation (SLT)


  The behaviour of the model which is then imitated. With a model, behaviour patterns can be rapidly acquired.

  They key determiners of whether the behaviour is imitated:

  • observers ability to perform behaviour
  • model's characteristics
  • observers consequences of the behaviour
• Identification (SLT)


  The extent to which the individual relates to the model. The more similar the individuals identify to the model, the more likely they are to imitate their behaviour
• vicarious reinforcement


  Learning how to behave by observing someone else being reinforced by that behaviour. Individuals learn the consequences of an action and adjust their behaviour based on this.
• Mediational approach (SLT)

  Internal mental processes that mediate and determine whether a response is learnt, four processes:

  • Attention: the extent to which an individual pays attention to what they're observing, they need to pay attention to imitate
  • Retention: How well the behaviour is remembered, must be remembered to be repeated
  • Reproduction: Behaviour can only be repeated if it is physically realistic the individual can
  • Motivation: The motivation behind the imitation, if the model is rewarded for the behaviour it is more likely to be imiated
• Procedure of Bandura et Al's experiment on SLT

  Tested boys & girls from Stanford Nursery.

  • The children were split into 2 groups, either observed aggressive behaviour or non-aggressive behaviour.
  • In the aggressive condition, the children observed the model behave verbally & physically towards the bobo doll
  • After observing the model's behaviour, the children were placed into a room with toys including a bobo doll.
• Findings of Bandura et Al's study on SLT

  Children who observed the aggressive model replicated the physical and verbal aggressive behaviour towards the doll.

  Those in the non-aggressive condition did not act aggressively towards the doll.

  This study demonstrates how aggression in children is acquired by observing models who act aggressively then children imitate thid aggression.
• A03, SLT

  SLT has useful applications

  SLT has been used to explain criminal behaviour

  • Alkers (1998) people are more likely to commit crimes when exposed to models they identify with who commit crimes. As, they identify with these models they expect positive consequences if they commit criminal behaviour
  • Ulrich (2003) suggests the strongest cause of violent behaviour is due to influence of violent peers whose behaviours are modelled and rewarded
• A03, SLT

  Research to support identification

  Research supports SLT idea that the more individuals identify with the models, the higher the likelihood of learning & imitation

  • Fox & Bailenson created computer generated human models who either exercised or loitered
  • The models were either similar or dissimilar to ppts
  • Ppts who observed the models similar to them who exercised engaged in more exercise 24 hours after the experiment compared to the other ppts

  Identification with models leads to enhanced learning
• A03, SLT

  A problem of establishing causality

  Delinquency may not be due to SLT

  • People have deviant attitudes prior to contact with deviant peers, not deviant due to the exposure of deviant models
  • Siegel and McCormick suggest young people who possess deviant attitudes seek out other deviant peers as they are more fun to be around than less deviant peers

  Is difficult to establish if SLT is the cause of deviant behaviour
• A03, SLT

  A problem of complexity


  Focusing on SLT disregards other behaviour influences

  • Many things, not just models who the individual identifies with effect behaviour
  • e.g. Genetic predispositions (characteristics), media portrayals & locus of control are also factors effecting behaviour

  It is difficult to research and establish the influence of SLT
• A03, SLT

  The importance of identification in SLT

  Models similar to the target audience are more likely to bring about identification & so greater social learning occurs

  • Health campaigns try to create models similar to the target population, with similar physical characteristics and attitudes towards the target population

  Messages are more effective & stronger when the individual identifies with the target population