part 2

• the target tissues of parathyroid hormone are the bone and kidney
• parathyroid hormone action:

  • essential for regulation of blood Ca levels
  • increases vitamin D formation through effects on receptors of renal tubule cells in the kidneys. thus, stimulates increased Ca absorption
  • binds to receptors of osteoblast so that in turn, osteoblasts secrete substances that stimulate osteoclast (break down old bone cells to create new bone cells through osteoblast)
• deficiency of parathyroid hormone causes hypoparathyroidism
• excess of parathyroid hormone causes hyperparathyroidism
• thyroid gland hormones: thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and calcitonin
• adrenal medulla hormones: epinephrine and norepinephrine
• target tissues of epi and norepi: heart, blood vessels, liver, adipocytes
• epi and norepi action:

  • increases cardiac output; increased blood flow to skeletal muscles and heart
  • increases release of glucose and fatty acids into blood
• in general, epi and norepi prepares the body for physical activity
• adrenal cortex hormones: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, adrenal androgens
• mineralocorticoids are also called aldosterone
• the target tissues of mineralocorticoids are the kidneys, intestine, and sweat glands
• adrenal cortex hormones: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, adrenal androgens
• the target tissues of mineralocorticoids are the kidneys, intestine, and sweat glands
• mineralocorticoids action:

  • returns blood pressure to its normal range through modulation of kidney function
  • increase rate of Na transport into the body
  • increase rate of K excretion in the urine
  • secondarily favor water retention
• deficiency of mineralocorticoids causes hyperaldosteronism (hypernatremia)
• excess of mineralocorticoids causes hypoaldosteronism (hyperkalemia)
• glucocorticoids is also called cortisol
• the target tissues of cortisol are most tissues (liver, fat, skeletal muscles, immune tissues)
• glucocorticoids action:

  • increase lipid and protein breakdown
  • increase glucose synthesis from amino acids
  • increase blood nutrient levels
  • inhibit inflammation and immune response
• excess of cortisol causes Cushing's syndrome
• adrenal androgens target most tissues
• adrenal androgens action in male:

  • stimulate secondary sex characteristics
• adrenal androgens action in females:

  • increase female sexual drive, growth of pubic and axillary hair
• pancreas hormones: insulin and glucagon
• the target tissues of insulin are skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, and especially the liver
• insulin action:

  • increases uptake and use of glucose and amino acids
• elevated blood glucose stimulate beta cells to secrete insulin
• the inability to regulate blood glucose levels within normal range is diabetes mellitus
• diabetes mellitus has 2 types: type 1 (IDDM) & type 2 (NIDDM)
• IDDM: insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
• NIDDM: non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
• the target tissue of glucagon is the liver
• glucagon action:

  • increases breakdown of glycogen and release of glucose into circulatory system
• management of diabetes mellitus:

  • avoid sugary food and drinks
  • exercise
  • monitor FBS and HbA1c levels
  • monitor CBS at home, if necessary
  • religiously drink medicine
• FBS: fasting blood sugar
• HbA1c: glycated haemoglobin
• testosterone is the main reproductive hormone in males
• the target tissue of testosterone is most tissues
• testosterone action:

  • aids in sperm cell production
  • maintenance of functional reproductive organs, secondary sex characteristics, and sexual behavior