DF 3

• The Wealth of Nations was written in 1776
• Rational agents will select the choice which presents the highest benefits
• In classical economic theory, the word 'rational' means that economic agents are able to consider the outcome of their choices and recognise the net benefits of each one
• If a firm increases advertising

  Their demand curve shifts right, increasing the equilibrium price and quantity
• Marginal utility is the additional utility (satisfaction) gained from the consumption of an additional product. If you add it up for each unit you get total utility
• It is a flawed assumption as people usually don't act rationally
• Mechanism of bromine addition to an alkyne

  Electrons from the double bond attack the electrophile bromine, forming a carbocation intermediate which then reacts with bromide ions to form the final product
• Electrophilic addition reaction

  Electrophile with a positive charge attracts electrons from the double bond, resulting in the addition of the electrophile to the molecule
• Test for alkenes

  Decoloration of bromine water to colourless from orange when added to an alkene, indicating the presence of a double carbon bond
• Conditions are important in electrophilic addition reactions
• Classic example of an electrophilic addition reaction

  • Reaction of hydrogen gas with Athene at 150 degrees Celsius with a nickel or platinum catalyst to produce ething
• Hydration of alkenes

  Alcohols are produced by reacting alkenes with steam and an acid catalyst, such as phosphoric acid, at 300 degrees Celsius and 60 atmospheres pressure
• Hydration of alkenes is a reversible reaction with an initial yield of about 5% but overall yield can reach 90-95% due to recycling of unreacted alkene
• Making alcohol from alkyl hydrogen sulfate

  Using sulfuric acid as a catalyst, alkyl hydrogen sulfates react with water in a process called hydrolysis to form alcohols and regenerate sulfuric acid
• Example of addition of hydrogen halides

  • HBR follows the same mechanism as the addition of a halogen
• Addition of hydrogen halides to alkenes

  Alkenes react with hydrogen halides to form alkyl halides or alkanes
• Formation of bromoethane from ethene and hydrogen bromide

  Double bond attracts Delta positive hydrogen, forming a carbo cation intermediate, leading to the creation of bromoethane
• Formation of ethyl hydrogen sulfate

  Alkene adds sulfuric acid to form ethyl hydrogen sulfate, then sulfate reacts with water to form ethanol and reform sulfuric acid, acting as a catalyst
• Formation of two products from unsymmetrical alkenes and hydrogen halides

  Unsymmetrical alkenes react with hydrogen halides to produce two different products by adding hydrogen to different carbons
• Formation of addition polymers from alkenes

  Alkenes act as monomers to form addition polymers, which can be natural (e.g., proteins, natural rubber) or synthetic (e.g., polythene, polypropene)
• Charles Goodyear discovered vulcanized rubber in 1844, revolutionizing the properties of rubber for modern applications
• Polymers, such as nylon and Teflon, have revolutionized modern living and are widely used in products like plastic bottles
• Polypropene

  • Saturated molecules, normally nonpolar, do not react to anything, do not degrade well
• Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, water, and methane absorb infrared radiation, leading to the greenhouse effect and global warming
• Polymers

  • Revolutionized the way we live today
  • Used in plastic bottles, cars, calculators, clothing, smartwatches
  • New polymers have brand new properties and uses
  • Can weave electronics into them
  • Becoming increasingly more sophisticated
• Making polypropene

  Joining monomer propene molecules together to form the polymer
• Products made from polymers

  • nylon
  • Teflon
  • polypropene
• Incomplete combustion of alkanes with limited oxygen supply produces carbon monoxide and soot
• Combustion of alkanes

  Burning in plentiful oxygen supply forms carbon dioxide and water, releases large amounts of energy
• Boilers in houses may experience some incomplete combustion, emphasizing the need for good ventilation to ensure sufficient oxygen supply
• Incomplete combustion of butane

  C4H10 + Oxygen → Carbon Monoxide + Water
• Carbon monoxide can be removed using a catalytic converter
• When burning an alkyne with limited oxygen supply, carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon (soot) are produced, indicating incomplete combustion
• Complete combustion of any fuel is rare, and incomplete combustion can occur
• Combustion of cyclic alkanes, alkenes, and alcohols produces carbon monoxide and water
• If a faulty boiler in a bedroom is not burning efficiently and produces carbon monoxide, carbon monoxide detectors are necessary as it is odorless and invisible
• Carbon monoxide bonds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, displacing oxygen, which can lead to respiratory issues
• Burning fossil fuels releases sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen, leading to acid rain which damages plants, kills fish, and causes erosion to buildings
• Soot and particulates produced from incomplete combustion can cause breathing problems and increase the risk of cardiovascular issues
• Sulfur dioxide reacts with water in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid, contributing to acid rain