Anaphy Full

• Anatomy is the study of body structures and their relationships. Physiology is the science of how body parts function
• Sub-disciplines of Physiology

  • Neurophysiology
  • Endocrinology
  • Cardiovascular physiology
  • Immunology
  • Respiratory physiology
  • Renal physiology
  • Pathophysiology
• All living organisms carry out certain vital functional activities necessary for life, including maintenance of boundaries, movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, and growth
• Sub-disciplines of Anatomy

  • Embryology
  • Histology
  • Surface anatomy
  • Gross anatomy
  • Systemic anatomy
  • Regional anatomy
  • Radiographic anatomy
  • Pathological anatomy
• Levels of Structural Organization of the Body

  • Chemical
  • Cellular
  • Tissue
  • Organ
  • Organ system
  • Organismal
• Digestion


  The process of breaking down ingested food into simple molecules
• Movement


  Includes motion of the whole body, individual organs or single cell
• Basic Life Processes

  • Maintenance of boundaries
  • Movement
  • Responsiveness or irritability
  • Digestion
  • Metabolism
  • Excretion
  • Reproduction
  • Growth
• Excretion


  The process of removing excreta or wastes from the body
• Negative feedback mechanism


  A control system in which a stimulus initiates a response that reverses or reduces the stimulus, stopping the response until the stimulus occurs again
• Disruptions of homeostasis can lead to disorders, diseases, and even death
• Body Cavities And Their Membranes

  Spaces within the body that contain the internal organs
• Growth


  The increase in size, usually accomplished by an increase in the number of cells
• Anatomical Position: Standing erect facing the observer, with the head level and eyes facing directly forward. The feet are flat on the floor and directed forward, and the arms are at the sides, with the palms turned forward
• The body constantly responds to internal and external changes while remaining stable
• Dorsal cavity is located in the posterior region of the body; lined with membranes called meninges; consists of the cranial and vertebral cavities
• Thoracic cavity is superior to the diaphragm; contains the lungs and heart
• Metabolism


  Refers to all chemical reactions that occur within body cells
• Responsiveness or irritability


  The ability to sense changes in the environment and react to them
• Maintaining boundaries

  Living organisms must be able to maintain its boundaries so that its "inside" remains distinct from its "outside"
• With age, the efficiency of negative feedback mechanisms declines, and positive feedback mechanisms occur more frequently
• Systems


  Consist of related organs that have a function
• Reproduction


  The production of offspring
• Homeostatic Control Mechanisms contain at least three elements: receptor(s), control center, and effector(s)
• Body Cavities

  • Dorsal cavity
  • Cranial cavity
  • Vertebral cavity
  • Ventral cavity
  • Thoracic cavity
  • Abdominal cavity
• Homeostasis


  A state of good health maintained by the normal metabolism of the organ systems
• Anatomical Terminology and Body Plan

  • Frontal or coronal
  • Sagittal
  • Midsagittal
  • Parasagittal
  • Transverse
  • Cross
  • Longitudinal
• Positive feedback mechanism


  Intensify the initial stimulus, leading to an enhancement of the response. They rarely contribute to homeostasis
• Abdominal cavity is inferior to the diaphragm; contains many organs including the stomach, liver, and intestines
• Ventral cavity is found in the anterior region of the trunk; the diaphragm separates thoracic and abdominal cavities; the pelvic cavity is inferior to the abdominal cavity
• Endochondral Ossification


  Bone forms within hyaline cartilage
• Bone Development and Growth

  1. Ossification is the process of bone formation

  2. Ossification begins during the sixth or seventh week of embryonic life

  3. Two types of ossification: intramembranous and endochondral
• Bone Structure

  • Osteocytes are cells found in the matrix of calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, and collagen
  • Compact bone contains haversian systems
  • Spongy bone lacks haversian systems but contains red bone marrow
  • Articular cartilage is smooth and found on joint surfaces
  • Periosteum is made of fibrous connective tissue membrane anchoring tendons and ligaments, and contains blood vessels entering the bone
• Functions of Bones

  • Support
  • Protection
  • Movement
  • Mineral and growth factor storage
  • Blood cell formation
• Intramembranous Ossification

  Bone forms directly on or within loose fibrous connective tissue membranes
• Factors that Affect Bone Growth and Maintenance

  • Heredity contributes to genetic potential for height
  • Nutrition includes calcium, phosphorus, and protein for bone matrix; vitamin D is needed for calcium absorption; vitamins C and A are needed for bone matrix production
  • Hormones are involved in cell division, protein synthesis, calcium metabolism, and energy production
  • Exercise or stress is important for weight-bearing bones to prevent calcium loss and brittleness
• Gross Structure of a Typical Long Bone

  1. Diaphysis is the shaft of a long bone

  2. Medullary cavity is within the diaphysis

  3. Endosteum is a thin layer of connective tissue lining the medullary cavity

  4. Epiphysis is at either end of the diaphysis, consisting of spongy bone surrounded by compact bone. Red bone marrow is present
• Thoracic cavity


  • Superior to the diaphragm; contains the lungs and heart
• Vertebral cavity

  • Encloses the spinal cord
• Pelvic cavity


  • Contains the urinary bladder and reproductive organs