ENDOGENOUS

• Volcanism or Plutonism


  Process that occurs after magma is formed, magma tries to escape through openings like volcanoes, magma reaching the surface is called lava
• Endogenous processes that played a role in the evolution of landforms on Earth

  • Magmatism
  • Volcanism or Plutonism
  • Metamorphism
• Tensional stress involves rocks being pulled apart, moving farther away from each other
• Thermal energy of the mantle and crust drives endogenous processes
• Regional metamorphism occurs in a larger area due to a larger-scale action of heat and pressure
• Uniqueness of Earth
• Geologic Processes of Earth

  1. Exogenous Processes on Earth

  2. Endogenous Processes on Earth

  3. Types of Stress Influencing Rock Behavior

  4. The Continental Drift
• Compression stress results in rocks pushing or squeezing against each other, leading to horizontal or vertical orientations
• Types of Stress Influencing Rock Behavior

  1. Compression

  2. Tension
• Rocks subjected to stress get deformed, leading to stability issues on the surface structures
• The Earth’s Systems

  1. Geosphere

  2. Hydrosphere

  3. Atmosphere

  4. Biosphere
• Metamorphism

  Process of changing the materials that make up a rock due to heat, fluids, and pressure, two types: contact metamorphism and regional metamorphism
• Thermal energy originates from the decay and disintegration of radioactive elements in Earth’s core
• The Formation of The Universe

  1. The Formation of Star Systems

  2. The Beginnings of Earth
• Compressional stress usually takes place in folding, resulting in mountain building
• Magmatism


  Magma is constantly moved by internal heat, forms when rocks reach high temperatures, and develops into igneous rocks
• Endogenous Processes on Earth


  1. Caused by forces from within the interior of Earth

  2. Responsible for earthquakes, movement of plates, mountain building, volcanic activities, and other movements related to Earth’s crust
• Rocks changing due to weathering and sedimentation are not considered to have undergone metamorphism
• Alfred Wegener claimed that Earth used to have one supergiant land mass called Pangaea which broke apart, forming present-day continents
• Initially, two giant continents were formed: Laurasia and Gondwanaland
• Shear stress


  Portions of a plate at the edges may break away in different directions, making the plate smaller, can cause earthquakes
• Abraham Ortelius (1527-1598) observed and presupposed that the shapes of the continents on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean seem to connect to each other
• Types of stress

  • Tension
  • Shearing
  • Confining
• Similar plant and animal fossils found in continents far from each other, indicating animals couldn't have traveled there, e.g., fossils of Mesosaurus
• Compressional stress


  Takes place in folding which results in mountain building
• Confining stress


  The crust becomes compact, making it look smaller, can cause sinkholes
• Wegener supported his theory with references from past authors like Eduard Suess (1831-1914) who recognized the existence of Gondwanaland and proposed the Tethys Sea
• Wegener provided evidence to support the continental drift theory including similarity of fossils, presence of tillites in areas with no glacial formation, presence of coal seams in polar regions, continuity of rock layers, and similarity of rock types in different continents
• Tensional stress


  Rocks are pulled apart, may separate in opposite directions, speculated to have separated all continents during the breaking away of Pangaea
• In 1912, geophysicist Alfred Wegener (1880-1930) developed the concept of the continental drift theory
• Similarity of fossils found in different continents


  • Many similar plant and animal fossils were found in continents that are presently far from each other such that it is unimaginable for an animal to have flown or swum to get to the other continent. For example, the fossils of Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile, were found in Brazil and in Africa. Freshwater reptiles are not capable of swimming to distances between continents unless the continents of Africa and South America were once together. Another example is the Glossopteris, a fern plant, which was found to have thrived in five different continents (Africa, India, Australia, South America, and Antarctica) that are presently separated by oceans and seas, thus miles away from one another. With the absence of flying vehicles during that time, it would be impossible for any avian organism to have carried with it seeds of Glossopteris for pollination as it flew from continent to continent unless again, those continents were close to each other. Only the drifting of continents away from each other could explain this phenomenon.
• Presence of coal seams in polar regions

  • Coal is a fossil fuel that originated from the chemically altered remains of prehistoric vegetation. Usually, coal is found in tropical areas because the climate is warm and ideal for the propagation of organisms. Wegener questioned why coal would be found in polar regions such as the North Pole and Antarctica, leading him to believe that these areas used to be near the equator and just drifted away from it.
• Similarity of rock types in different continents

  • The rock types found in Brazil, India, South Africa, and Antarctica seem to have similar layers and sequence. This is evidenced by a top layer (which is the youngest rock layer) characterized by lava flow, followed by a middle layer with fossils of Glossopteris (which was believed to have been extensive and widespread in the entire Pangea) and a bottom layer of glacial till (or tillites). The theory is that all these places were once continuous and shared the same environment and history.
• Presence of tillites in areas whose present climates do not suggest glacial formation

  • Tillites are glacial deposits from rock strata in areas that were once covered with snow. These deposits were found in South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica, and Australia. It is understandable if tillites are found in polar climates or areas where there is snow. However, for places that are presently known to be tropical and desert-like, such as Africa, Madagascar, and India, finding ice deposits would seem unreasonable if not for the concept of drifting continents.
• Continuity of rock layers found in different continents

  • Rock layers may be profiled to determine the history, age, and composition of materials in the environment. Part of the evidence of continental drift is the similarity of rock layers found in mountains that are on the opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The Appalachian Mountains, the Caledonian Mountains of Scotland, the Scandinavian Mountains of Norway, and the Atlas Mountains of Morocco were thought to be one mountain range in Pangea. Later on, the Atlantic widened and broke the mountain range into pieces.
• The Origin of Earth

  1. The Formation of The Universe

  2. The Formation of Star Systems

  3. The Beginnings of Earth

  4. Uniqueness of Earth
• Geologic Processes of Earth

  The dynamism of Earth, attributed to its never-ending geologic processes, is driven by the internal and external forces on it
• Weathering

  The disintegration of rocks, soils, and minerals together with other materials through contact with Earth’s subsystems
• Effects of chemical weathering

  • Sinkholes
  • Caverns
  • Karsts
• Geologic Processes of Earth

  1. Earth’s continuous evolution is brought about by various geologic processes

  2. All geologic structures and formations currently in place will change in time

  3. Plate tectonics, erosion, weathering, and sedimentation are examples of processes that significantly affect Earth’s surface