research methods

• manipulation of independent variables (IV) to have an effect on the dependent variable (DV), which is measured and state in results
• The 4 types of experiement:

  • field
  • laboratory
  • quasi
  • natural
• A hypothesis is a precise statement which clearly states the predicted relationship between the variables being investigated.
• A directional hypothesis states the how the IV will effect the DV
• A non-directional hypothesis states the IV will have an effect on the DV but does not state how they'll be affected.
• Independent variable changes
• dependent variable is measured
• operationalising variables means they are clearly defined and measurable
• extraneous variables are any othr variable that isn't the IV that has an effect on the DV.
• A confounding variable systematically changes with the IV
• demand characteristics are when participants become aware of the aim of the study and potentially change their behaviour.
• investigator effects is any unwanted influence from the researcher (conscious or unconscious) on the DV
• randomisation is the use of chanc to reduce the effects of bias from th investigator effects
• standardisation is using the exact sam procdures and instructions for all participants in the study.
• Laboratory design:

  • takes place in a highly controlled environment where variables can be controlled.
  • have a high degree of control, replicatable
  • artificial nature means low ecological validity
• Field design:

  • conducted in a more natural environment but with variables still bing wll controlled
  • high ecological validity because it's naturalistic
  • invasion of privacy, no informed consent
• Quasi

  • where the IV naturally exists such as gender studies
  • controlled conditions increases internal validity
  • confounding variabls present harder to establish cause and effect
• Natural design

  • where the IV would've happened if the researcher was there or not
  • provides opportunities for otherwise impossible research, high external validity
  • naturally occuring events are rare, very difficult to randomise
• opportunity sampling

  • participants happen to be available
  • easy, time saving, mony saving
  • not representative, lacks generalisability, researcher bias
• random sampling

  • everyone has the same chance of being picked, allocated a random number pulled from a random number generator
  • no researcher bias
  • time consuming
• systematic sampling

  • every nth member is selected
  • fairly representative of population
  • not truly unbiased
• stratified sampling

  • percentages taken of different groups
  • representative due to proportional selection
  • time consuming
• volunteer sampling

  • participants offer to take part in response to an ad
  • easy, time saving, participants more likely to coorperate
  • volunteer bias, attracts a certain profile of person
• Independent groups design

  • participants perform in one conditions of the IV
  • no order effects, no demand characteristics
  • no control over participant variables
• Repeated measures

  • same participants take part in all conditions of the IV
  • no participant variables, time saving
  • order effects
• Matched pairs

  • pairs of participants are matched on some variable, each members of the pair then complete different conditions
  • no order effects, low demand characteristics
  • time consuming, expensive, large number needed
• A pilot study is a small scale study carried out to test the feasability of a large scale study
• single-blind procedure: participants do not know the true purpose of the study (avoids demand characteristics)
• double-blind procedure: neither participants or researcher knows which group is receiving the experimental treatment.
• Naturalistic observation

  • watching and recording behaviour whre it'd naturally tak place
  • high external validity
  • low ecological validity if participants know they're being watched
• controlled observation

  • structured envrironment (lab setting)
  • researcher is able to focus on a particular aspect of the behaviour
  • unnatural behaviour, lacks ecological validity
• Overt observation

  • paricipants know they're being watched
  • ethically acceptable
  • unnatural behaviour, demand characteristics
• covert observation

  • participants are unaware they're being watched
  • natural behaviour
  • ethical issues
• participant observation

  • researcher is part of participation group
  • more insightful
  • researcher bias
• non-participant observation

  • researcher is not part of participation group
  • researcher observes from a distance, less bias
  • may lose valuable insight
• correlational studies can establish a trend betwen IV and DV but don't produce cause and effect as there isn't enough control
• Experimental Method

  • Definition: Manipulating variables to observe effects while controlling other factors.
  • Components: IV, DV, control/experimental groups, random allocation, standardization.
  • Strengths: Establishes cause-and-effect, high control.
  • Weaknesses: Artificial settings, ethical concerns.
• Observational Method

  • Definition: Systematic observation without interference.
  • Types: Participant/non-participant, structured/unstructured.
  • Strengths: Insight into natural behavior, high ecological validity.
  • Weaknesses: Observer bias, limited generalization, ethical concerns.
• Self-report Methods

  • Definition: Gathering data directly from participants.
  • Examples: Questionnaires, interviews, Likert scales.
  • Strengths: Subjective experiences, efficient data collection.
  • Weaknesses: Social desirability bias, accuracy issues, limited insight.
• Case Study Method

  • Definition: In-depth examination of individual/group.
  • Components: Detailed data collection, longitudinal/retrospective analysis.
  • Strengths: Rich insights, hypothesis generation.
  • Weaknesses: Limited generalization, researcher bias, resource-intensive.