Loftus and Palmer

• What was the main focus of Loftus and Palmer's methodology?

  Influence of wording on speed estimates
• In Loftus and Palmer's first experiment, what did they investigate?

  Influence of wording on speed estimates
• In Loftus and Palmer's second experiment, what did they aim to determine?

  Whether memories were altered by leading questions
• What research design was used in both of Loftus and Palmer's experiments?

  Independent groups design
• Where were both of Loftus and Palmer's experiments conducted?

  Laboratory
• How many participants were there in Loftus and Palmer's first experiment?

  45
• How many participants were there in Loftus and Palmer's second experiment?

  150
• What type of participants were used in Loftus and Palmer's experiments?

  Students
• What was the context of Marshall's 1969 study?

  Air Force personnel observing a car
• In Marshall's (1969) study, what speed was the car traveling at?

  12mph
• According to the study material, what may have caused the range in speed estimates in Marshall's study?

  Leading questions
• In Loftus and Palmer's Experiment 1, what did participants watch?

  Videos of car crashes
• What verbs were used in the critical question in Loftus and Palmer's Experiment 1?

  Hit, collided, smashed, bumped, contacted
• What was recorded and analyzed in Loftus and Palmer's Experiment 1?

  Speed estimates
• What type of videos were shown to participants in Loftus and Palmer's Experiment 2?

  Staged car crashes
• In Loftus and Palmer's Experiment 2, what was the 'critical question' about?

  How fast the cars were going
• What verbs were used in the 'critical question' in Loftus and Palmer's Experiment 2?

  Hit or smashed
• In Loftus and Palmer's Experiment 2, when were participants asked the follow-up question about broken glass?

  After one week
• What was expected in Loftus and Palmer's Experiment 2 regarding the "smashed" group?

  More likely to say they saw glass
• In Loftus and Palmer's Experiment 1, what did the results indicate about the effect of the phrasing of questions?

  It significantly affected witnesses' answers
• According to Loftus and Palmer, what could be a reason for the difference in speed estimates due to phrasing?

  Response-bias factors
• According to Loftus and Palmer, how might the verb "smashed" alter an individual's memory of the accident?

  Making it seem more severe
• According to Loftus and Palmer, what are the two kinds of information that go into our memory for complex events?

  Original event perception and external information
• According to Loftus and Palmer, what happens to the two sources of information over time?

  They become intertwined
• According to Loftus and Palmer, what does the observer first form of an accident they witnessed?

  Some representation of the accident
• According to Loftus and Palmer, when is a new piece of external information added?

  When the experimenter asks a leading question
• According to Loftus and Palmer, what happens when the two pieces of information are integrated?

  The memory is of a more severe accident
• What do Loftus and Palmer believe leading questions do to memory?

  Alter the memory
• What ethical issue arose from Loftus and Palmer not gaining valid consent?

  Participants' behaviour would have been affected
• What could the researchers argue about their deception regarding ethical issues?

  It was an important piece of research
• From a participant's point of view, how could the deception be justified?

  The deception was mild
• Why did the researchers use clips of staged car accidents?

  To reduce psychological harm
• What methodological issue did the use of staged accidents lead to?

  Reduced validity
• What do the findings of Loftus and Palmer imply about eyewitness testimonies?

  They can be unreliable
• What is a potential consequence of inaccurate eyewitness information?

  Innocent people may go to jail
• What has Loftus and Palmer's work raised awareness of?

  The unreliability of EWT
• What has been developed due to our knowledge of misleading information and leading questions?

  Police interview techniques
• What are police now trained to use in interviews?

  Techniques that increase memories
• What is the goal of the new police interviewing techniques?

  Make witness recall more reliable
• In Loftus and Palmer's Experiment 1, what was the average speed estimate given by participants who were asked the "smashed" question?

  40.5 mph