Material factors

• Since education became compulsory in 1880, children became financial dependants, whereas previously they might work. Now children are expensive to rear, despite family benefits, especially if they go to university.
• As a result of these changes, in white families average family size is slightly less than two children. As it is common for adults to live until they become great grandparents, the postmodern family has been likened to a beanpole, high (several generations) but with few side branches (children).