RESEARCH METHODS (P1)

• KEY TERMS

  What is an aim?

  . An aim identifies the purpose of the investigation- what the researcher is trying to find out
• What is a hypothesis?


  . A precise, testable statement of what the researchers predict will be the outcome of the study
• What are demand characteristics?


  . Cues that might indicate the study aims to participants and influence them
• What are investigator effects?


  . Occur when a researcher unintentionally, or unconsciously influences the outcome of any research they are conducting
• What are extraneous variables?


  . Any variable that you're not investigating that can potentially affect the outcomes of your research study
• What is operationalisation?

  . Turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations-variables
• What is ecological validity?


  . A measure of how test performance predicts behaviours in real-world settings
• What is mundane realism?


  . How similar the materials and procedures are in the experiment compared to real-world settings
• What are participant variables?

  . The ways in which each participant varies from the other, and how this could affect the results
• What is social desirability bias?

  .The tendency to underreport socially undesirable attitudes and behaviours and fo over report more desirable attributes
• What is internal validity?


  . A measure of if results have solely been affected from changing variables
• What is external validity?

  . The extent which you can generalise findings robither situatuons: people,setting,measures
• What is reliability?

  . The trust worthiness of consistency of a measure
• ETHICAL ISSUES

  What is the British psychological society and ethical issues?

  . Ethical issues are conflicts about what is acceptable; they arise wheh a conflict exists between the rights of the participants in research studies and the forms of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data.

  . Psychologists in the UK are advised by the BPS; it has its own code of ethics and this includes a set of ethical guidelines.

  . Researchers have a professional duty to observe these guidelines when conducting research- they won't be sent to prison if they don't follow them but they may well lose their job

  . The BPS guidelines are closely matched with ethical issues in psychology; these are there to ensure that all participants are treated with respect and consideration during research

  . A cost/benefit approach is usually used to determine whether particular research proposals are ethically acceptable
• What is the BPS code of ethics?

  Ice Cool penguins Don't Wear Pink Coats

  
  

  .Informed Consent

  .Protection from harm

  .Deception

  .Withdrawal

  .Privacy

  .Confidentiality
• What is the definition of informed consent?


  . Participants are told every aspect of the study which means they can make an knowledgeable decision whether to take part
• What is informed consent from the pts point of view?

  . Pt.'s should be told what they will be required to do in the study (the procedure) so that they can make an informed decision about whether they wish to participate

  . This is a basic human right; in the 2nd world war Nazi doctors conducted various experiments on prisoners without their consent and at the war trials afterwards it was decided thag consent should be a right for pt.'s involved in any studies

  . Pt.'s should also be informed of any likely benefits or risks of participation; however, researchers are not always able to accurately predict these risks/benefits
• What is informed consent from the researchers point of view?

  . Researchers should tell pt.'s the true aim and procedure of a study and also inform them of their rights and what their data will be used for

  . However, revealing these details might cause pt.'s to change the way they behave in a study

  . From the researchers point of view asking for informed consent may make the study meaningless because pt's natural behaviour will not be natural as they know the true aim of the study
• How do you not break ethical issues when dealing of informed consent?

  . Provide a consent letter/form detailing all relevant information that might affect a pt.'s decision to participate. If pt.'s agree to take party they then sign the form

  . Offer the right to withdraw

  . For studies involving children under 16, a signature of parental consent is required
• What are the 3 alternatives for informed consent as it can spoil research?

  -Presumptive consent

  . Rather than getting consent from p's a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable. Consent from original p's is presumed if the group agree

  
  

  -Prior general consent

  . P's give their permission to take part in a number of studies-including one that will involve deception.

  . By consenting p's are effectively consenting to be deceived

  
  

  -Retrospective consent

  . P's are asked for their consent (during debriefing)having already taken part in the study

  . They may not have been aware of their participation or possible deception
• What is the definition of protection from harm?

  . Participants must be safe from both mental and physical harm

  . The risks involved must be no greater than those in everyday life
• What is protection from harm from the participants point of view?

  . Nothing should happen to them that causes any physical harm (e.g. smoking,drinking) or psychological harm (e.g. feeling inadequate/embarrassed)

  . The risk of harm to pt.'s should be no more than they would be likely to experience in everyday life

  . Participants should be in the sane state after a study as they were before, unless they have given their informed consent to be treated otherwise
• What is protection from harm from the researchers point of view?

  . Researchers know that studying some of the more important questions in psychology may involve a degree of distress to pt.'s

  . It is also difficult to predict the outcome of certain procedures and how much harm will be caused to the pt.'/

  . For example the studies by Milgram and Zimbardo caused pt.'s harm but both researchers argued they didn't know the extent this would go to

  . It is hard for researchers to guarantee protection from harm
• What are the ways of dealing with protection from harm?

  . Avoid any risks that are greater than experienced in everyday life

  . Stop the stuffy if harm is suspected

  *Debrief

  . At the end of a study a debrief should be given to pt.'s; within this pt.'s should be made aware of the true aim of the study and should be given any details they were not supplied with during this study.

  Pt.'s should also now be told they can withdraw their data if they wish

  . Pt.'s may have concerns about their performance and so should be assured that their results were typical/normal

  . In extreme cases of pt.'s have been subjected to stress and embarrassment they may be offered counselling
• What is the definition of deception?


  . Participants are not told the true aim of the experiment. The BPS believes this must be avoided whenever possible
• What is deception from the pt.'s point of view?

  . Deception is unethical-if pt.'s have been deceived then they didn't give their fully informed consent to take part in the study

  . If deceived pt.'s may have therefore agreed to participate without really understanding what they had let themselves in for

  . Deception can also lead people to see Psychologists as untrustworthy and may mean pt.'s don't want to take part in future studies

  . Baumrind (1985) argued deception is morally wrong on the basis of 3 generally accepted ethical rules;the right of informed consent, the obligation of researchers to protect the welfare of the pt and the responsibility of the researcher to be trustworthy
• What is deception from the researcher's point of view?

  . It can be necessary to deceive pt.'s about the true aim of the study, otherwise pt.'s may alter their behaviour and the study would be meaningless

  . Researchers should though make the distinction between withholding some of the details of research (e.g. aim) and deliberately providing false information
• What are the ways of dealing with deception?

  . The need for deception should be approved by an ethics committee, weighing up the benefits (of the study) against costs (to p's)

  . P's should be fully debriefed after the study. This involves informing them of the true nature of the study. P's should be offered the opportunity to discuss any concerns and to withhold their data from the study.
• What is the definition of the right to withdraw?

  . Participants must be aware that they have the right to leave the study and remove their results
• What is the right to withdraw from the pt.'s point of view?

  . The right to withdraw is important- if a pt. begins to feel uncomfortable or distressed they should be able to withdraw;this is especially important if the pt. was deceived about the aim/procedures

  . Sometimes the right to withdraw is comprised by payment of pt.'s or some other reward. Psychology students usually get credits towards their degree from taking part in studies

  . This payment/reward may make pt.'s feel less able to withdraw
• What is the right to withdraw from the researcher's point of view?

  . If pt.'s do leave during the study this will bias the results because the pt.'s who have stayed are likely to be more obedient, or they might be more hardy leading to a biased sample
• What are the ways of dealing with the right to withdraw?

  . P's should be informed at the beginning of a study that they have the right to withdraw

  . They should also have the right to withdraw their data if they choose to
• What is the definition of privacy?

  . Research must only be conducted in places pt's expect to be watched. Must not invade private info/behaviour
• What is privacy from the pt.'s point of view?

  . People do not expect to be being watched/observed/taking part in studies without their knowledge

  . People also don't expect that their privacy would be invaded in a private space e.g. they wouldn't expect to be observed when in the privacy of their own homes

  . Pt.'s are more likely to expect to be observed when in public e.g when in a park
• What is privacy from the researcher's point of view?

  . It may be difficult to avoid invasion of privacy when studying pt.'a

  . This is especially true when using investigation techniques where the pt. doesn't know they are being studied
• What are the ways of dealing with privacy?

  . Do not study anyone without their informed consent unless it is in a public place and public behaviour
• What is the definition of confidentiality?

  . Any results must remain confidential unless it is agreed with the participant otherwise all info protected
• What is confidentiality from the pt.'s point of view?

  . The Data Protection Act makes confidentiality a legal right

  . It is only acceptable for personal data to be recorded if the data are not made available in a form that identifies the pt.'s
• What is confidentiality from the researcher's point of view?

  . It may be difficult to protect confidentiality as the researcher wishes to publish findings

  . A researcher may guarantee that data will be kept anonymous but even then it may be obvious who has been involved in the study

  . For example if you knew a study was conducted on pt.'s from a town where a music festival is held once a year, it would be pretty easy to narrow down to where it was conducted
• What are the ways of dealing with confidentiality?

  . If personal details are held these must be protected

  . Usually maintain anonymity by referring to p's as numbers or initials when describing an individual (case study)

  . During briefing and debriefing p's will be reminded that their data will be protected throughout the process