British Empire 1945-1967

• Who is Kwame Nkrumah?


  (Pan-African Nationalist from the Gold Coast, had socialist beliefs )

  • Educated in a Catholic mission school, studied in Accra then universities in the US then went to London (to the LSE) in 1945 where he became deeply involved in the Pan-African movement (organising the fifth Pan-African Congress in Manchester)
  • Returned to Gold Coast, was briefly imprisoned, then founded the Convention People's Party in 1949 - PM from 1953, independence in 1957, overthrown by a CIA backed military coup in 1966
  • A founding member of the Organisation of African Unity in 1963
• Who is Nnamdi Azikiwe?


  (Nigerian nationalist)

  • Had a western education in Nigeria then had further study in the US, then worked as a journalist
  • Created the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons in 1944, becoming a leader in Nigerian nationalism
  • Had to negotiate between the religious and ethnic factions of Nigerian nationalists (between the Ibo, 'Yorba Action Group' and the largely Muslim NPC )
  • In 1960, was able to convince British to allow independence despite their factions - overthrown in military coup in 1966
• Who is Jomo Kenyatta?


  (Kikuyu Kenyan African nationalist)

  • Educated in a Scottish missionary, visited England
  • Became principle of Kenya's teacher's college, and became president of the KAU in 1947. Toured and gave lectures across the country to campaign for independence and the return of land
  • Imprisoned in 1952 after the 'State of Emergency after the Mau Mau Rebellion
• Who is Apolo Milton Obote?


  (Ugandan nationalist)

  • Son of a tribal chief, educated in a Protestant Missionary school and Makarere University
  • Worked as a construction worker in Kenya in the 50s, there he became politicised and gained socialist ideas. Then returned to Uganda and joined the Ugandan National Congress, was elected in 1957 to the Colonial Legislative Council
  • Became its first Prime Minister in 1962 (the year of its indendence)
  • His rule became increasingly arbitrary, with the use of: secret police, corruption, food shortages and discrimation of Indians in Uganda -overthrown in 1971
• Who is Nelson Mandela?

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• Who is Sir Andrew Cohen?


  (colonial administrator)

  • Head of Colonial Office and later Governor of Uganda
  • Belived in the rights of Africans. 1947 Cohen Report advocated for African self-rule
  • 1953, Created the Central African Federation (CAF)
  • As Governor of Uganda, grew the University of Makerere encouraging political activism
  • Thought that the Gold Coast was the most advanced colony but didn't think that independence woulf be feasible for a generation, thought elsewhere that it would take longer
• Who is Sir John Macpherson?


  (colonial administrator)
• Who is Charles Arden-Clarke?

  (colonial administrator)

  • Governor of the Gold Coast
  • responsible for the release of Nkrumah and bringing him into government
  • had to reign Nkrumah in and delayed independence untill another election win, refered to himas "our local Hitler"
  • Had positive relationship as after independence in 1957 was given the honorary Governor General title for a few months
• Who is Onn bin Ja'afar


  (Malayan nationalist)

  • founded the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO)
  • Organised peaceful protests against the creation of the Malayan Union through civil disobedience
  • Britain followed their demands and made the Federation of Malaya in 1948
• What was the significance of the Suez Canal Crisis?

  • 1956, ...
• How did Burma become independent?

  • Britain decided to grant independence shortly after the war, due to Aung San's Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL) (who sided with Japan then switched sides) violent activities against Britain. The breakdown of order caused Attlee to speed up his plans for slow withdrawal
  • 1947, talks of independence occured but factions within the AFPFL couldn't decide on Burma's path forward, Aung San is assassinated and a civil war ensues
  • Not the measured withdrawal envisioned, 1948 got independence but refused to join Commonwealth
• How did Malaya become independent? 1/2

  • Ethnic tensions between the Chinese (represented by Malay Chinese Association and Malayan Communist Party) and Malays. Tried to create the "Malay Union", Malays in the UMNO didn't like. The created the Federation of Malaya, the Chinese didn't like as it excluded them from Malay citizenship.
  • Fearing rebel attacks due to Chinese grievances and economic issues, in 1948, State of Emmergency, military force, arrests. Disorder with the assassination of the British High Commissioner. Order restored in 1952.
• What were the political developments in Singapore?

  • Recaptured in 1945, in 1947 given some level of self-government
  • Lim Yew Hock's strong action against communist insurgents in Singapore caused Britain to grant full internal self-government
  • Britain decided to have Singapore join the Federation of Malaya (later becoming Malaysia) in 1963 but ethnic tensions caused their expulsion in 1965
• What are the reasons debated for decolonisation?

  • Economic impact of WWII
  • Reliance on the US
  • Nationalist movements
  • The strength of Western Europe
• How did Ghana gain independence?

  • After WWII, educated African elite wanting political say. Britain wanted gradual change, not damage interests
  • 1946, Burns Constitution, created a council with elected representatives but final decisions were still in the hands of the British, caused mass protests.
  • Nkrumah's CPP pressured the British to provide more self-rule
  • Nkrumah imprisoned, threat of protests caused Charles Arden-Clarke to release him
  • Divisions between the Ashanti independence movement and Nkrumah, Arden-Clarke delayed independence till another election win, independence in 1957
• How did Nigeria gain independence?

  • 1946, Richards constitution, elected representatives to a council but Britain still had final say
  • Ethic divisions in the country between Igbo, Yoruba and Hausa made Britain want to slow independence but nationalist movement continued after the extension of the franchise .
  • Azikiwe able to negotiate between different factions
  • Independence in 1960
  • Similar nationalist forces in Sierra Leone and Gambia caused independence a few years later
• How did Kenya gain independence? 1/2

  • WWII, urbanisation of cities like Mombasa and Nairobi caused increased nationalism. Economic issues as well with high inflation, poor housing and overcrowding.
  • When the Governor Phillip Mitchell said independence wasn't possible in near future, nationalism fed further
  • Kikuyu were disadvantaged by white highlanders who took their land and were disfavoured against the Masai tribe
• How did Tanganyika (Tanzania) gain independence?

  • ...
• How did British withdrawal in South Africa occur?

  • Full control of internal affairs since the 1931 Statute of Westminster
  • 1960 Sharpeville massacre, shows repression of black people, strained relations as Britain criticised them for their apartheid
  • 1961, South Africa wanted control over surrounding colonies (Basutoland, Bechuanaland, Swaziland). Britain refused so white South Africans voted to leave the Commonwealth
• How did British withdrawal in Central Africa occur?

  • 1953, the CAF (Central African Federation), merging Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Britain thought uniting them would reap economic benifits
  • local nationalists and white governors of the CAF clashed. Nationalists arrested,
  • Early 60s Britain ordered the release of nationalists. New constitutions for Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland drawn up, CAF disbanded in 1963 and independence in 1964
  • Southern Rhodesia, whites supported the Rhodesian Front Party. Ian Smith illegally declares independence
• What was British intervention in Iran?

  • ...
• How did the Cold War impact decolonisation?

  • ...
• What was the significance of the Windrush and immigration?

  • 1948, the Empire Windrush ship docked in the Thames. The 1948 British Nationality Act gave all in the Commonwealth right to live and work in Britian due to labour shortages (the NHS and public transport needed this)
  • 1/3 of migrants on the Empire Windrush were RAF fighters. At first little was done to restrict immigration but also little to help them settle
• How did the Empire appear in popular culture?

  • less patriotic, Lawrence of Arabia, more critical of Empire but, North West Frontier had British officers protecting a Hindu Prince from Muslim uprising (showed Empire necassary for protection). British central
  • Children's stories abandoned colonial tone, Eagle comics challenged racism, diversity
  • documentaries, cultural awareness. BBC's "Till Death us Do Part" riddiculed immigrant communities and had racial slurs. Black and White minsteral shows
  • playwrights in the Angry Young Men genre, disollusioned Empire, lack of working-class
• What was the significance of Pan-Africanism?

  • 1944, The Pan African Federation founded in Manchester, includes: Kwame Nkrumah, Jomo Kenyatta, Julius Nyerere
  • Worked together to bring about independence for Africa as a whole, was rooted in socialism
• How did Malaya get independence? 2/2

  • Malaya important for Rubber, Singapore important for military bases
  • Malays and Chinese united against Britain, winning landslide victory in 1955, Britain feared violent military rebellion, set up Reid Commission for new constitution
  • 1957, Independence but military presence in Singapore continued and Malaya still had economic ties with Britain (its rubber) (stayed in Sterling Area). Exchanged colonial rule for informal influence
• what was the racist backlash against immigration to Britain?

  • post-war economic boom slowed down, racism rife.
  • Oswald Moseley's Union Movement and BFU were very anti-immigration- didn't get mainstream support
  • 1958, the Teddy Boy youth launched violent attacks on Black people and race riots occured in Notting Hill. Bengalis in the East End were subject to violence
  • Enoch Powell's "Rivers of Blood" speech
  • 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act, to curb immigration (even if had passport). Polling, majority in support
• what were the residual impacts of Empire?

  • Declined as American culture and trade grew. Empire Day abolished in 1962. Increased ties with Europe in the EFTA in 1960
  • WWII, Empire seen as a family that defeated Hitler
  • Expat communities in places like Hong Kong
  • Cultural impacts with Anglican Church having more members in Africa, anglicised names, British style railways, use of English language
  • The Commonwealth Games, rugby popular in New Zealand and South Africa, cricket popular in India and Australia
  • The use of Imperial royal Honours remains
• What was the economic impact of WWII?

  • rationing persisted untill 1954. Buildings destroyed. Debt significantly rose and had to sell off overseas assets
  • 1960, Britain created the EFTA (with Austria, Portugal, Sweden, Denmark). Britain tried to join EEC but was vetoed by France. By 1956 the majority of Britain's imports were from Western Europe and exports to there
  • Post-war reconstruction was successful at first with increasing exports from Empire and the Colonial Welfare Acts (1940, 1945) (later became Commonwealth Development Coroporation). But Tanganyikan groundnuts scheme destroyed land
• How did Kenya get independence? 2/2

  • The Mau Mau (militant group of the Kikuyu) started a gurrila war against the settlers when they tried to displace more peasants.
  • 1952 State of Emmergency, brutal response, displacing villages, use of concentration camps. the Hola Camp had torture
  • Independence in 1963