Crime and globalisation

• Globalisation:


  Refers to the increased interconnectedness of societies. Held et al: it is the widening, deepening and speeding up of world wide interconnectedness in all aspects of life; from cultural, criminal, financial, and spiritual.
• The Global Criminal Economy:

  Held et al: suggests there has been a globalisation of crime; an increasing interconnectedness of crime across national borders. This has then helped the spread of transnational organised crime as there is an introduction of new opportunities, new means and new offences.
• The Global Criminal Economy:


  Castells: due to globalisation, there is now a new global criminal economy which is worth £1 trillion per annum. It takes place in a number of forms: trafficking endangered species for natural remedy production, money laundering, green crimes, trafficking nuclear materials/body parts/cultural artefacts.
• The Global Criminal Economy:

  It has both a demand and supply side, part of the reason for the increase in scale is due to the demand for products and services in the West increasing. However, this economy couldn't function without the suppliers who provide the source of drugs, sex workers, and other goods demanded by Western countries.
• The Global Criminal Economy:

  Colombia: supply is linked to globalisation process e.g. poor, drug-producing countries such as Colombia, Peru and Afghanistan have large populations of people in poverty. For these groups, drug cultivation is an attractive option as it requires little investment but commands high prices compared to traditional crops. It is estimated that 20% of Colombian population depend of cocaine production for their livelihood.
• Global risk consciousness:


  It creates new insecurities and produces a new mentality of 'risk consciousness' which is now on a global scale rather than personal. e.g. there is an increase in the movement of people, both economic migrants seeking work, or asylum seekers fleeing persecution, it has given rise to the anxieties among Western countries who feel there is a risk of crime and disorder, seeing it as a need to protect their borders.
• Global risk consciousness:


  Though not all fears are rational, much of the knowledge about their risks comes from the media who give an exaggerated view of the dangers we face. e.g. they often create moral panics about opposed threats which are often fuelled by politicians. negative coverage on migrants has caused hate crimes against them.
• Global risk consciousness:


  A result of these anxieties is an intensification of social control on a national level. UK has the toughest border control regulations, e.g. fining airlines if they bring in undocumented passengers. UK also has no legal limits on how long people can be held in immigration detention.
• Global risk consciousness:


  Another result of globalised risk is the increased attempts at international cooperation and control in the various 'wars' on terrors, drugs and crime, particularly since the terrorist attacks of 9/11.
• Globalisation, capitalism and crime:

  Socialist perspectives - Taylor: argues globalisation led to changes in the patterns of crime. Giving free rein to market forces, it has created greater inequality and rising crime. Creating crime at both ends of the social spectrum; transnational companies switch to low-wage countries to manufacture cheaply - producing job insecurity, unemployment and poverty.
• Globalisation, capitalism and crime:


  Deregulation means governments have little control over their economies, it is then harder for them to create jobs or raise taxes, and state spending on welfare has declined. Marketisation then encourages people to see themselves as individual consumers, calculating costs and benefits which undermines social cohesion. Left realists - not that increasingly materialistic culture promoted by global media portrays success in terms of consumption.
• Globalisation, capitalism and crime:

  All these factors create insecurity and widening inequalities which encouraging people, especially w/c, to turn to crime. Lack of legitimate job opportunities destroys self-respect and drives the unemployed to look for illegitimate jobs, like the lucrative drug trade. e.g. in LA, de-industrialisation caused growth of drug gangs at 10,000 members.
• Globalisation, capitalism and crime:

  Creates criminal opportunities at a grand scale for elite, deregulation of financial markets allow insider trading and movements of funds globally to avoid taxation. It has caused new patterns of employment, creating new crime opportunities; e.g. contracting 'flexible' workers, working for less than minimum wage, and breaching health and safety regulations.
• Crimes of globalisation:


  Rothe and Friedrichs: role of the IMF and World Bank in what they call 'crimes of globalisation'. Organisations are dominated by major capitalist states. World Bank has 188 member countries, yet only 5 (USA, Japan, Germany, Britain and France) hold 1/3 of voting rights. Meaning they can impose pro-capitalist, neoliberal 'structural adjustment programmes' on poor countries as conditions for their loans.
• Crimes of globalisation:


  Requiring governments to cut spending on health and education, and to privatise publicly-owned services (e.g. water supply), industries and natural resources. Allows Western corporations to expand into these countries, giving crime opportunities. Cain: suggests that IMF and World Bank act as a 'global state', not breaking any laws, but their actions cause widespread social harms (e.g. cutting welfare spending).
• Patterns of criminal organisation:

  Hobbs and Dunningham: found that crime is organised in relation to economic changes caused by organisation. Increasingly involving a 'hub' of individuals who are loose-knit networks seeking opportunities, and often linking legitimate or illegitimate industries. Contrasting the large-scale, hierarchal 'Mafia-style' criminal organisations in the past.
• Patterns of criminal organisation - 'glocal organisation':

  New forms of organisation which sometimes have international links, especially drug trade, but crime is still rooted in its local context. Hobbs and Dunningham: conclude it works as a 'glocal system' - its still locally based but with global connections. Its form varies from place to place, according to local conditions and is influenced by global factors (like drug availability).
• Patterns of criminal organisation - 'glocal organisation':

  Hobbs and Dunningham: argue that changes associated with globalisation have changed patterns of crime - e.g. shift from hierarchal gang structure to loose networks of flexible, opportunistic criminals. A03 - Though these conclusions may not be generalisable to other criminal activities elsewhere.
• Patterns of criminal organisation - 'McMafia':

  Glenny: observed a growth in organised crime networks and global criminal organisations due to - the deregulation of global markets, and the increase of capitalism as a result of globalisation. Increased consumerism and liberalised rules have now condoned and facilitated activities like drug consumption and human trafficking globally.