Psychopathy

• What is the definition of deviation from social norms?

  • Abnormal behaviour - goes against rules and expectations in a culture.
  • Societies make judgements about what is normal behaviour
  • Behaviour doesn’t conform to expected standard abnormal
  • The norm varies from culture to culture
• What are some examples of how social norms vary with time and culture?

  • Culture: in the UK, hearing voices might be diagnosed with schizophrenia whereas in some African countries It is seen as spiritual.
  • Context: wearing a bikini is normal at the beach, but maybe abnormal in a classroom or formal setting
  • Historical: homosexuality was seen as abnormal until 1973
  • Age/Gender: a child, having a tantrum is normal when adult doing the same in public is abnormal
• SUPPORTING Evaluation of deviation from social norms definition of abnormality: cultural relativism

  norms are culturally relative, so it is difficult to determine universal signs of illness

  One culture may label someone from another as abnormal using their standards. For example, hearing voices is normal in some cultures but abnormal in the UK so therefore deviation from social norms is culturally relative
• REJECTING evaluation of deviation from social norms definition of abnormality: Historically relative

  One limitation is that norms can change overtime. Behaviour that would have been defined as abnormal in one era is no longer defined as abnormal now. For example, homosexuality was illegal before 1967, in the UK. Deviation from social norms, lack temporal validity.
• REJECTING evaluation of deviation from social norms definition of abnormality: Not all behaviour is a sign of mental illness

  Not all behaviour that deviate from social norms is a sign of illness, for example, speeding, and having face tattoos. Eccentric behaviours are not abnormal or at least or not a sign of mental illness.
• What is Failure to Function adequately?

  • Abnormality is judged as inability to cope with every day life.
  • Behaviour is maladaptive, irrational or dangerous
  • Behaviour causes, personal distress and distress to others
  • FOR EXample; not being able to keep a job or having poor personal hygiene
• (FFA) what did Rosenham and Seligman find?

  • Suffering
  • Violation of moral standards
  • Maladaptive behaviour
  • Irrational behaviour
  • Unpredictable behaviour
• REJECTING evaluation of FFA: not all behaviour is FFA

  Not all maladaptive behaviour is an indicator of mental illnesses. For example, taking part in extreme sports might be unusual or dangerous. It is easy for you to label a non-standard lifestyle choice as abnormal, but it is not psychological abnormality.
• ACCEPTING evaluation of FFA: recognises patients pov

  This definition recognises the personal experience of the individual. It acknowledges the importance of how the individual feels, and how well they are coping, but other than whether the individuals behaviour fits with societies expectation. It is useful for assessing abnormal behaviour as it allows us to view mental disorders from the perspective of the person.
• REJECTING evaluation of FFA: psychopathy (Harold Shipman)

  Not all abnormal behaviour is associated with failure to function. Harold Shipman was a Doctor Who murdered at least 215 patients, and they’re not display any of the features of failure to function. Many people may not be identified as abnormal according to the definition because they don’t suffer from any personal distress and appear to function normally.
• What is the definition of Statistical Infrequency?

  • abnormality is defined as behaviour or characteristics that are rare, uncommon or unusual.
  • Occupies the extreme ends of a normal distribution curve eg; low IQ defined ay intellectual disability disorder
  • relies on the use of up to date statistics
• Give an example of statistical infrequency:

  IQ and intellectual disability disorder.

  average IQ is around 100

  normally, people have a range of 85-115

  only 2% have a score below 70 (those people would be classed as abnormal)
• REJECTING evaluation of Statistical Infrequency: Fails to account for behaviours that are statically rare but desirable

  Stastical Infrequency fails to account for behaviour that is statistically rare but desirable such as having a high IQ

  An IQ of 130 is statistically rare but desirable, doesn’t mean someone is abnormal mentally

  unusual doesn’t mean abnormal

  Statistical Infrequency can be part of diagnosis but it is not always useful on its own
• what is meant by Deviation from Ideal Mental Health?

  • abnormality which fails to meet prescribed criteria for psychological normality and wellbeing eg; accurate perception of reality, resistance to stress etc
  • absence of signs of mental health is used to judge abnormality
  • JAHODA proposed 6 characteristics that are characteristic of good mental health, the more criteria they fail to meet, the more abnormal they are
• (Deviation from mental health) Jahoda’s criteria *SPPEAR*

  • self actualization of one’s potential
  • personal autonomy
  • positive attitudes towards the self
  • environmental mastery
  • accurate perception of reality
  • resistance to stress
• ACCEPTING evaluation of deviation from mental health: Comprehensive definition

  • definition is comprehensive
  • positive, holistic approach to diagnosis
  • Attempts to define abnormality by looking at the person as a whole considering many factors that can affect mental health and well-being
  • This definition of abnormality could be praised for providing comprehensive criteria for mental health
• Rejecting evaluation of deviation from mental health: Culture bias

  Many of the criteria Reflect western cultural norms of psychological normality eg; value placed on independence/autonomy

  even in Europe there is variation in the value placed on personal independence

  It is difficult to apply the concept of ideal mental health from one culture to another.
• REJECTING evaluation of deviation from mental health: Demanding

  Criteria are too demanding and unrealistic

  most people would be judged abnormal based on this definition because they wouldn’t meet all the criteria

  this definition is based on similiar models of physical health but mental healthy may not be the same
• What are The three definitions of abnormality?

  Deviation from social normals, FFA, statistical infrequency, and deviation from mental health
• What is meant by a phobia?

  An extreme irrational fear that interferes with every day life, it often involves avoidance of the object. The fear is disproportionate to danger
• Give some examples of types of phobias

  • specific phobias, like specific objects, animals, or places
  • Social phobia with the fear of being in a social situation
  • Agoraphobia - the fear of open spaces or being in public
• (Characteristics of Phobias) Cognitive - how we think

  • Selective Attention - what people become fixated on the object that they fear. For example, you cannot walk away from a spider in your room.
  • Irrational beliefs- illogical thoughts about the phobic object based on past experiences. For example, a person with arachnophobia may all spiders are dangerous or deadly.
  • Cognitive distortions (thoughts that cause individual to perceive reality in accurately) - a person with a phobia of dogs, might see all dogs as disgusting or ugly animals
• (Characteristics of Phobias) Emotional characteristics - how we feel

  • Anxiety - high state of arousal; feelings of worry, or distress in the presence of the phobic stimulus
  • Fear - feeling scared or feeling terror. For example; feeling terrified of dying in an aeroplane crash
  • Emotional responses, unreasonable - response is disproportionate to the danger posed
• (Characteristics of Phobias) Behavioural - how we act

  • panic. - in the presence of the phobic object, for example, crying, screaming running away
  • Avoidance - and individual goes to a lot of effort to avoid encountering their phobia. For example, not going to the park in the summer because they fear ducks.
  • Endurance - and individual remains in the presence of the phobic object/situation, despite experiencing high levels of anxiety
• Explain how phobias are acquired through classical conditioning:

  • A NS + UCS creates a fear response (UCR)
  • the NS is then formed into a CS which creates a CR of fear.
  • CC explains the acquisition of phobias.
• Explain how operate in conditioning is used to maintain the fear response

  — a person avoids the phobic stimulus.

  • Avoidance of the phobic object, reduces the feelings of anxiety. (Negative reinforces behaviour, making the person more likely to repeatedly avoid it in the future.)
  • GENERALISATION: a stimulus that is similar to an existing CS produces the same response as the original stimulus
  • ONE TRAIL LEARNING: an event is so traumatic that only one exposure can create a phobia
• SUPPORTING evaluation of the learning theory on phobias (CC and OC) : Evidence supports

  Watson and Reyna conditioned little Albert to have a fear of white rats by pairing a loud noise, which scared Albert with a white rat. This eventually led to Albert responding to the white rat with fear.
• SUPPORTING evaluation For the learning theory of phobias (cc and OC) : Practical Applicatiom

  The two process model has proved useful as it has led to the development of behavioural therapies, for example, systematic, desensitisation, and flooding

  • systematic desensitisation helps people to unlearn their fears, using the principles of counterconditioning of flooding, prevents people from avoiding their phobias and stop negative reinforcement from taking place

  The behavioural explanation provides strategies for treating phobias that have proved extremely successful, especially for specific phobias
• REJECTING evaluation For the learning theory of phobias (cc and OC) : the two process model does not account for cognitive characteristics of phobias

  The behaviourist explanation has been criticised for being reductionist and simplistic. It ignores the role of cognition in the formation of phobias and cognitive psychologists. Suggest that phobias may developed because of irrational thinking, not just learning. For example and irrational thought is thinking spiders are dangerous.
• REJECTING evaluation For the learning theory of phobias (cc and OC) : Learning theory of phobias can’t explain why we seem to be pre prepared to fit certain stuff

  Conditioning is not the only way we have fear over something. Some phobias have an evolutionary aspect. Some common phobias, for example, heights and snakes don’t develop, because we have had a negative experience with it.

  • Biological preparedness means that humans acquire phobias, because it has been a danger in the past such as snakes and the dark, rather than cars for example
  • This behavioural explanation does not take evolutionary factors into account
• What is meant by systematic desensitisation?

  • behavioural therapy based on the principles of classical conditions
  • it uses counter conditions so that the person learns to associate the phobic object with relaxation rather than fear
• What is the process of Systematic Desensitisation?

  • Relaxation - the client is taught relaxation techniques e.g; breathing exercises, using mental imagery (eg, lying on a beach) or meditation
  • IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO FEEL AFRAID AND RELAXED AT THE SAME TIME !!
  • The client and therapist work together to develop an anxiety hierarchy where they rank the phobic situation from least to most frightening
  • the client is exposed to the phobic stimulus gradually (over several sessions)
  • the client works their way up the hierarchy from the least to most frightening situations at their own pace using relaxation techniques
• SUPPORTING evaluation of SD: Effective treatment

  • Evidence suggests the effectiveness of SD for phobias
  • McGrath et al found that 75% of patients with phobias were successfully treated using systematic desensitisation, using invivo (real life) SD
• REJECTING evaluation of SD: not effective for all phobias

  • not effective in treating all types of phobias
  • it may not be effective for phobias that have not developed because of learning experiences or social phobias
  • it may be more effective treatment for specific phobias
  • SD may not be appropriate for more generalised ‘free-floating’ phobias where there is no obvious ‘target’ behaviour so it is difficult to devise a hierarchy
• SUPPORTING evaluation of SD: Suitability for children and learning disability people

  • it is considered more appropriate treatment for people with learning difficulties or children
  • people with learning difficulties or children often struggle with cognitive therapist that require rational thought
  • they may also feel confused and distressed by the traumatic experience of flooding
• SD might be a more successful and more ethical treatment for phobias than flooding:

  • SD more successful - people make progress in small steps
  • SD is gradual - causes less distress. Flooding involves direct immediate exposure
  • SD low dropout/high competition rates
  • SD more suitable for children
• What is flooding?

  Involves immediate and direct exposure to the phobic stimulus. For e.g; a person who has a phobia of enclosed spaces would be placed in a loft and wouldn’t be able to leave until their anxiety levels reduce

  A person is unable to avoid their phobia and through continuous exposure, anxiety levels eventually decrease.

  high levels of anxiety cannot be maintained for a long period of time, the fear will eventually extinguish

  based on CC, breaking the CS-CR bond
• What is the ethical safeguards of flooding?

  Flooding is not unethical- it is however; u pleasant and traumatic

  important individuals give fully informed consent
• give an example of flooding therapy:

  Wolpe treated an adolescent girl fight a fear of cars. She was forced into the back of a car and driven around for four hours. Initially she was hysterical, but by the end the fear had disappeared
• SUPPORTING evaluation of Flooding : Cost Effective treatment for phobias

  • flooding takes much less time, compared to 10 sessions of SD
  • Patients cure their phobias quicklt and it is more cost effective for the NHS
  • Shipley et al found that only 0.2% of patients experienced side effects such as panic attacks suggesting it is an appropriate treatment for most people