Research methods

• Reliability

  Can the research method be repeated to get the same results
• Validity

  Is the data meaningful and giving the researcher an insight
• Representativeness

  Does the data represent others with similar characteristics allowing for generalisations
• Quantitative data

  Numerical data, high in reliability, favoured by positivists
• Qualitative data

  Data that is testimonial and non numerical, high in validity and favoured by interpretivists
• Laboratory experiments

  Conducted in an environment where variables are closely controlled, usually using the scientific method
• Strengths of laboratory experiments

  • Favoured by positivists
  • Produce quantitative data
  • High reliability as the environment stays the same
• Limitations of laboratory experiments

  • Low in validity - does not simulate real life environments
  • Risk of the Hawthorne effect
  • Low in representativeness - small sample size
• Field experiments

  Conducted in a real life environment (eg a classroom) but still aiming to control variables
• Strengths of field experiments

  • Favoured by positivists
  • Produce quantitative data
  • Reasonable reliability - can be repeated but more difficult to control
• Limitations of field experiments

  • Low validity - lacks meaningful data
  • Low representativeness - small sample size
• Questionnaire

  Part of a social survey, used for gathering information on attitudes, behaviors, and opinions, often used to explore social issues and trends.
• Strengths of questionnaires

  • Favoured by positivists
  • Produces quantitative data from closed questions
  • High in reliability as it can be repeated
  • High representativeness as it can be distributed to a large sample size
• Limitations of questionnaires

  • Low in validity as the data collected lacks meanings
• Structured interviews

  Part of a social survey eg Crime Survey for England and Wales. Questions are read out by the interviewer to the participant like a script, and their answers are recorded
• Strengths of structured interviews

  • Favoured by positivists
  • Quantitative data
  • High reliability - can be repeated by asking the same questions
  • Reasonable representativeness as it can have a fairly large sample size
• Limitations of structured interviews

  • Low in validity - data lacks meaning
  • Can be subjective - depends how the researcher notes down the answers
• Unstructured interviews

  More like a conversation with open questions and follow up questions to gain more understanding
• Strengths of unstructured interviews

  • Favoured by interpretivists
  • Qualitative data
  • High in validity - meaningful answers
• Limitations of unstructured interviews

  • Low reliability - cant be repeated as there may not be a set list of questions
  • Low representativeness - small sample size as it is time consuming
• Participant observation

  The observer will join in with the activities of the group being studied. Can be overt (identity known) or covert (identity unknown)
• Strengths of participant observations

  • Favoured by interpretivists
  • Produces qualitiative data
  • High in validity as the data is meaningful
• Limitations of participant observations

  • Low reliability - cant be repeated as they may ask different questions
  • Low representativeness - small sample size
  • Risk of the Hawthorne effect if overt
• Non participant observation

  The observer may remain detached and not join in with the activities of the group being studied. Can be covert (identity known) or overt (identity unknown)
• Strengths of non participant observations

  • Favoured by positivists if using a behaviour schedule or checklist
  • Quantitative data
  • High reliability - can repeat the observation if structured
• Limitations of non participant observations

  • Low validity - not joining in and asking questions
  • Low representativeness - small sample size
  • Risk of Hawthorne effect if overt
• Official statistics

  Numerical data published regularly by official agencies such as the government
• Strengths of official statistics

  • Favoured by positivists
  • Quantitative data
  • High in reliability - hard statistics use the same measurement
  • High in representativeness - large sample size
• Limitations of official statistics

  • Low validity - data tells us what is happening but not why it is happening
  • Soft statistics eg crime statistics can be socially constructed
• Documents

  Qualitative secondary sources. Can be personal eg diaries or public eg Ofsted reports
• Strengths of documents

  • Favoured by interpretivists
  • Qualitative data
  • High in validity - meaningful answers
• Limitations of documents

  • Low reliability - cant be repeated as the documents are unique
  • Low representativeness - small sample size