PR 1 2nd

• Research


  A systematic investigation that requires data to be collected, analyzed, and interpreted of any social or natural phenomena where results and conclusions are aimed at contributing to generalizable knowledge
• Scientific method


  A standardized set of techniques for building scientific knowledge
• Methods of reasoning used when conducting scientific research

  • Inductive
  • Deductive
• Inductive


  Aims to infer theoretical concepts and patterns from observed data; also known as Theory Building research
• Deductive


  Aims to test concepts and patterns known from theory using new empirical data; also known as Theory Testing research
• Research types

  • Qualitative
  • Quantitative
• Qualitative research


  Often referred to as inductive research; aims to understand or make sense of the world based on the experiences and perceptions of individuals
• Quantitative research


  Often referred to as deductive research; aims to understand the world by generalizability using controlled, value-neutral processes
• Research purposes

  • Basic research
  • Applied research
• Basic research


  Also known as theoretical research; aims to test existing or generate new theories to advance knowledge or understanding
• Applied research


  Aims to use the acquired knowledge in order to contribute directly to the understanding or resolution of practical issues; often identified when the research contributes to the solution of specific practical problems
• Knowledge types

  • Empirical
  • Nonempirical
• Empirical


  Information gathered through experience and direct data collection
• Nonempirical


  Roots from introspection, vicarious experiences, and people's analysis of events
• Knowledge types

  • Scientific knowledge
  • Nonscientific knowledge
• Scientific knowledge


  A generalized body of laws and theories that explains a phenomenon acquired using the scientific method; can be imperfect or far from the truth since it is based on the various theories currently accepted at the time
• Nonscientific knowledge


  The other sphere of human knowledge. It involves religions, ethical beliefs, moral precepts, and philosophical ideals
• Research types

  • Exploratory
  • Explanatory
  • Descriptive
• Exploratory


  Often conducted in new areas of inquiry where it intends to scope out the magnitude of a particular phenomenon, problem, or behavior, to generate new ideas
• Explanatory


  Provides explanations of an observed phenomenon by answering the 'why' and 'how' questions; attempts to correct the dots by identifying causal factors and outcomes of the phenomenon; and often seeks to explain an aspect of life
• Descriptive


  Is often used to describe an aspect of life richly. This is related to explanatory research but instead answers the 'who', 'what', 'when', and 'where' questions
• Research design


  A strategic plan of how to go about answering the research questions. It is a plan on how to collect, analyze, and interpret the research data. It touches on all parts of the research and acts as a blueprint
• Research methodology


  The rationale for the research design and is broader in terms of concepts on which it touches. It justifies one's choice of data collection, analysis method, and procedures
• Research methods


  Specific set of tools that a researcher uses throughout the study. These are the details that will be based on the methodology
• Research paradigm


  A cluster of beliefs and dictates which for scientists in a particular discipline influence what should be studied, how research should be done, and how results should be interpreted
• Research paradigms

  • Qualitative
  • Quantitative
• Qualitative research


  • Researchers are primarily concerned with processes rather than outcomes
  • Researchers are interested in meaning, or how people make sense of their experiences
  • The researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis
  • Research involves fieldwork
  • The research is highly descriptive in that the researcher is interested in deriving meaning from words or pictures
  • The process is inductive
• Approaches to qualitative research

  • Phenomenology
  • Ethnography
  • Case study
  • Discourse/Conversation analysis
  • Inductive thematic theory
  • Grounded theory
  • Narrative analysis
• Phenomenology


  Both an approach to and a method of understanding the behavioral, emotive, and social meanings of lived experiences of individuals; emphasizes the individual's experiences, beliefs, and perceptions
• Ethnography


  Focuses on studying shared practices and belief systems (i.e., culture) of a group of people in their natural context over a prolonged period
• Case study


  Allows in-depth investigation of complex issues within a specific context based on a small geographical area or a very limited number of individuals as the subjects of the study
• Discourse/Conversation analysis


  Studies naturally occurring discourse and extract shared meanings from such discourse; text is the object of analysis; it is divided into four (4) themes: discourse as a topic, discourse as a form of action, discourse is rhetorically organized, and language is constructive
• Inductive thematic theory


  Primarily concerned with presenting the stories and experiences voiced by study participants as accurately and comprehensively as possible; most common qualitative data analysis used in social, behavioral, and health sciences
• Grounded theory


  A set of inductive data collection and analytic methods to construct theories grounded in the data themselves
• Narrative analysis


  Focuses on narratives (storytelling) as the source of data; research focus shifts from "what actually happened" to "tell me what happened"; relates not just lifespans, but also accounts episodes and interconnections among them
• Characteristics of qualitative research

  • Qualitative research occurs in the field or in a natural setting where the phenomenon is happening; the researcher engages with the people directly involved and often acclimate themselves to the views, beliefs, and culture of the community in focus
  • Researchers act as the key instrument in collecting data for qualitative research; the interactions, direct observations, and subjective analysis of the researcher and participants become part of the research process and collected data
  • The participant and their subjective views on a particular phenomenon are put into emphasis in a qualitative study; these different perspectives are highlighted when presenting the findings of the study
  • Qualitative research uses multiple sources of data and analysis; data can be collected using interviews, focus group discussions, observations, document reviews, and audio-visual information
• Strengths and weaknesses of qualitative research methods

  • Semi-structured interviews
  • Observations
  • Focused group discussion
• Semi-structured interviews

  Strengths: Prevents imposing biases, important means to dig down information using open-ended questions, ensures mutual understanding between participant and interviewer; Weaknesses: Tendency to ask leading questions, interviews and analysis can be both time-consuming, subjective, and not generalizable, participants' accounts always mean something, but they cannot always be taken at face value
• Observations

  Strengths: First-hand account of observing, prevents imposition of preconceived ideas and explore unforeseen effects; Weaknesses: Observations and analysis can be time-consuming and are not generalizable, observer's presence may influence participants, observer may misinterpret actions, may be subjective
• Focused group discussion

  Strengths: Less expensive than individual interviews, provides a relaxed atmosphere so that people feel free to express their views and strengths, responses can be more spontaneous than in a one-to-one interview; Weaknesses: Findings are not generalizable unless sampling techniques are used to constitute the groups, depends on people's ability to talk in groups; group dynamics may inhibit people