Genetic engineering

• Electrofusion is important in the production of monoclonal antibodies


  A cell producing a certain antibody is fused with a tumour cell to rapidly divide
• Transformation(heat shock)

  1. Bacterial cells and plasmid are made in a calcium rich solution

  2. Increase temperature

  3. Results in bacteria membrane to become permeable and allow plasmids to enter
• Electroporation

  1. Small electrical current is applied to bacteria which makes membrane very porous and allows plasmids to enter

  2. This method can also be used to get DNA fragments directly into Eukaryotic cells where they would then fuse with the nuclear DNA

  3. The power of the current has to be carefully controlled otherwise the membrane of the cells are destroyed which destroys the whole cells
• Monoclonal antibodies can be purposed for

  • Identifying pathogens in animals or plants
  • As treatment for various diseases including cancer
• Isolating desired gene

  1. Endonuclease cut desired gene with uneven strands

  2. The uneven cut results in a few bases to hang along the side which we call sticky strands

  3. Sticky strands make it easier to recombine the DNA into another organism
• Formation of recombinant DNA


  1. A mark gene that produces fluorescence or an enzyme that produces a colour change in a medium is inserted

  2. Same endonuclease used to extract the desired gene is used to cut the plasmid at the mark gene to form complimentary sticky ends

  3. Once the strands line up, DNA ligase form bonds between the sugar and phosphate groups on the 2 strands of DNA

  4. If the insertion of the Desired DNA fragment was successful then the mark gene should no longer function nor give a colour change/produce light
• Electrofusion

  1. Tiny electrical currents are added to the membranes of both cells

  2. The cell membranes fuse to form a hybrid cell or polyploid which contains the DNA of both cell

  3. Successful in producing GM plants

  4. Less likely to be used in animals cells as, the membranes present have different properties which make it hard to fuse

  5. Polyploid mammalian cells are unlikely to survive in the body of the living organisms
• Genetic engineering


  Modifying an organism’s genome to achieve a desired effect
• Transgenic


  An organism that carries a gene from another organism, often called a genetically modified organism (GMO)