APPROACHES IN PSYCHOLOGY

• THE ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY

  What is the definition of psychology?

  The scientific study of the functions of the human mind and its functions especially those affecting behaviour in given context
• What is the definition of science?

  A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. Aim is to discover general laws
• What is Wilhelm Wundt and introspection?

  -the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious thoughts/feelings/sensations

  -a person gains knowledge about their own mental and emotional state from this method

  -Wundt claimed with sufficient training, mental processes such as memory and perception could be observed systematically as they occurred using introspections

  -e.g. observers shown object and asked to reflect on how they percieved it, information could then be used to gain insight into nature of mental processes that involve perceptiom

  -in Wundts studies of perception pts would be presented with carefully controlled stimuli and asked to provide description of inner processes they experienced when looking at image/listening to tone
• What is the evaluation of Wundt?

  -Wundts methods were unreliable

  .this approach relied primarily on non-observable responses

  .although pts could report on the conscious experiences, the processes themselves like memory and perception are considered unobservable

  .wundts approaches lacked reliability as his results difficult to replicate by other researchers

  
  

  -subjective

  .likely to produce data that lacks objectivity as verabl report from pts can't be verified by scientists

  .experience of pts can't be generalised to others

  
  

  -introspection is not particularly accurate

  *Nisbett and Wilsons

  .claim we have very little knowledge of the causes and processes underlying our behaviour and attitudes which challenges value of introspective reports

  .found pts unaware of factors that influenced their choices because we have attitudes that exist outside of conscious awareness

  
  

  +ve it is an easy/simple method

  .provides direct observation of mental processes

  .only method by which person can be aware of their own experience
• THE EMERGENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

  What are the 2 major assumptions of the scientific approach?

  .All behaviour is seen as being caused (the assumption of determinism)

  
  

  .If behaviour is determined, then it should be possible to predict how human beings would behave in different conditions (the assumption of predictability)
• What is the scientific method/cycle?

  Objective, systematic and replicable observation

  -->

  Building,refining or falsifying

  -->

  Development of a scientific theory

  -->

  Testing
• What is the definition of the scientific method?

  Refers to the use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable, and the formation, testing and modification of hypotheses based on these methods
• What is the scientific method explained in detail?

  . research is objective in that researchers do not let preconceived ideas or biases influence the collection of their data

  
  

  .research is systematic in that observations or experiments are carried out in an orderly way

  
  

  .measurement and recording of empirical data are carried out accurately and with consideration for the possible influence of other factors on results

  
  

  .research is replicable in that observations can be repeated by researchers to determine whether the same results are obtained

  
  

  .the development of theories and the constant testing and refining of these theories through further observation completes the scientific cycle
• What i the evaluation of the scientific approach?

  +Strengths of a scientific approach to psychology

  .Because of its reliance on objective/systematic methods of observation, knowledge acquired using the scientific method is more than just the passive acceptance of facts

  .Because scientific methods rely on a belief in determinism, they are able to establish the cause of behaviour through the use of methods that are both empirical and repplicable

  .If scientific theories no longer fit the facts, they can be refined or abandoned, meaning scientific knowledge is self-corrective

  
  

  -Limitations of a scientific approach to psychology

  .By concentrating on objectivity and control in observations, scientific psychologists create contrived situations that tell us little about how people act in more natural environments

  .Not all psychologists share the view that all human behaviour can be explored using the scientific method. If human behaviour is not subject to the laws,/regulations implied by scientific methods ,then predictions become impossible and these methods inappropriate

  .Much of the subject matter of psychology is unobservable therefore cannot be measured accurately.
• THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH

  What is the behaviourist approach?

  .The behaviourist approach rejected the vagueness of introspection, focusing instead on observable events, i.e. stimuli and responses, and the conditions under which learning would be most likely to occur

  .Because of its focus on learning this approach is sometimes known as the 'learning theory'

  .2 influential forms of learning/conditioning are classical conditioning and operant conditioning
• What is classical conditioning?

  -All humans/animals are born with a number of natural reflexes such as the reflex action of salivation when food is placed in the mouth

  -The Russian Psychologist Ian Pavlov is credited with discovering classical conditioning-learning through association

  -He was investigating the salivary reflex in dogs when he noticed that the animals not only salivated when food was placed in their mouths, but also reacted to stimuli that coincided with the presentation of food, such as the presence of the food bowl or the person who fed them.
• What happens before conditioning?

  .Unconditioned stimulus

  -Food

  .Unconditioned response

  -Salivation

  
  

  .Neutral stimulus

  -Bell

  .NO RESPONSE

  During conditioning the unconditioned stimulus of food and neutral stimulus of the bell keep occuring together and so association of these 2 takes place.

  
  

  AFTER CONDITIONING

  .Conditioned stimulus

  -Bell

  .Conditioned Response

  -Salivation
• What are the other important features linked to classical conditioning?

  .Timing

  -If the NS cannot be used to predict the UCS (e.g. if it occurs after the UCS or the time interval between the two is too great). Then conditioning does not take place

  
  

  .Extinction

  -Pavlov discovered that, unlike the UCR, the CR does not become established as a response. After a few presentations of the CS in the absence of the UCS it loses the ability to provide the CR.

  
  

  .Spontaneous Recovery

  -Following extinction, if the CS and the UCS are then paired together once again, the link between them is made much more quickly,

  
  

  .Stimulus Generation

  -Pavlov discovered that once an animal has been conditioned they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the CS.
• What is operant conditioning?


  -The basic idea behind Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is that organisms spontaneously produce different behaviours, and these behaviours produce consequences for this organism, some of these which may be positive (desirable) and some negative (undesirable)

  -Whether an organism repeats a particular behaviour depends on the nature of these consequences i.e. it is reinforced
• What is the Skinner box?

  -to investigate operant condition in rats

  -the rat moves around the cage, and when it accidentally presses the lever, a food pellet (the reinforcer) falls into the cage.

  -in no time at all the rat begins pressing the lever to obtain food

  -if the food pellets stop,the rat presses the lever a few more times and then abandons it (extinction)
• What are the types of reinforcement?


  -Reinforcement means something in the environment strengthens (or reinforces) a particular behaviour and so makes it more likely to recur.

  
  

  -There are 2 main types of reinforcement-positive and negative-although they both make it more likely behaviour will recur, they do this in different ways
• What is positive reinforcement?

  Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed e.g. praise from teacher for giving correct answer in class.
• What is negative reinforcement?


  Occurs when an animal/human avoids something unpleasant e.g. when a student hands in homework to avoid detention-the avoidance of something unpleasant is the negative reinforcement.
• What are the other important features linked to operant conditioning?

  .Schedules of reinforcement

  -Although continuous reinforcement (e.g. reinforcing a rat every time it presses a lever) is most effective, a partial reinforcement (e.g. reinforcing every 3rd lever press) is more effective in maintaining that response and avoiding extinction

  
  

  .Punishment

  -When behaviour is followed by a consequence that is undesirable. Decreased likelihood of behaviour reccuring.

  Punishment can be positive-add a slap

  Negative- taking away something pleasant like a computer.
• What is the evaluation of the behaviourist approach?

  +Strengths of the classical conditioning explanations

  .Classical conditioning has led to the development of effective treatment for phobias.

  .This therapy works by eliminating the learned anxious response(CR) that is associated with the feared object/situation (CS)

  .This therapy has been shown to be effective for a range of phobias

  
  

  +Strengths of the operant conditioning explanations

  .A strength of Skinners research was the use of experimental method (changed IV & DV) and the use of controlled conditions in an attempt to discover a possible casual relationship between 2 variables.

  .This means cause and effect could be established

  
  

  -Limitations of the classical conditioning explanations

  . Different species face different challenges to survive and so have different capabilities to learn through the process of classical conditioning

  . As a result, relationships between the CS and UCS tend to be more difficult to establish for some species than others

  
  

  - limitations of operant conditioning explanations

  . Skinners research was criticised as he mainly studied animal

  . Critics claim his reliance on pigeons/rats means his results tell us little about human behaviour as humans unlike animals have free will and are maybe less likely to be manipulated by positive/negative reinforcement
• SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

  What is social learning theory?

  . Albert Bandura believed new patterns of behaviour could be acquired not only though direct experience but by observing your own and other peoples behaviour

  . During this course of learning people not only perform responses they observe consequences of their own and others behaviour

  . Then they develop a hypothesis about the types of behaviour most likely to succeed in a given situation and this hypothesis guides their future behaviour

  . Bandura referred to this approach as social learning theory
• What is the first thing needed for social learning theory?

  MODELLING

  . For social learning to take place, someone must carry out/model the attitude or behaviour to be learned

  . Individuals that perform this role are called models- there are different types of model e.g live, parents/teacher/peer, symbolic, portrayed by media e.g. tv character

  . Models provide examples of behaviour that can be observed by the individual and later produced
• What is the second thing needed for social learning theory?

  IMITATION

  . Copying the behaviour of others

  . When a model is provided, whole patterns of behaviour can be acquired

  . The key determinants as to whether behaviour is imitated are:

  . 1. Characteristics of the model

  . 2. Observability to perform the behaviour

  . 3. Observed consequences
• What is the third thing needed for social learning theory?

  IDENTIFICATION

  . When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model

  . Research suggests that children are more likely to identify with models who are similar to them e.g. same sex models

  . Identification means that an individual is likely to imitate the models behaviour
• What is vicarious reinforcement?

  - Bandura and walters noted that children who observed a model rewarded for aggressive behaviour were much more likely to imitate that behaviour than children who observed a model punished for the same behaviour

  - Bandura called this vicarious reinforcement where individuals learn about the likely consequences of an action and judge their subsequent behaviour accordingly

  - individuals do not need to experience rewards/ punishments directly to learn, they can observe the rewards/ consequences that others receive and then make judgments as ti the likelihood of experiencing them themselves
• What is the role of the mediation process?

  - SLT is often described as a bridge between traditional learning theory and the cognitive approach because it focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in learning

  - these mental factors mediate (intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a new response is required

  - 4 mental/ mediation processes in learning were identified by Bandura
• What are the 4 mental/ mediation processes in learning identified by Bandura?

  1. Attention- the extent to which we notice certain behaviours

  2. Retention- how well the behaviour is remembered

  3. Motor reproduction- the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour

  4. Motivation- the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
• What is the key study by Bandura et al?

  . Procedure

  - children observed aggressive or non aggressive adult playing with the Bobo doll

  - aggressive models showed aggressive acts such as 'striking the doll with a mallet' and verbal aggression such as 'pow'

  - 1/2 children saw aggressive modelling

  -1/2 children saw nob-aggressive

  - then taken to a room which contained the Bobo doll and other toys and observed to see if they imitated the behaviours they had seen

  
  

  
  

  . Findings

  - children who observed the aggressive model reproduced lord of physical and verbal aggression

  - 1/3 repeated the models verbal responses

  - none of those who observed non-aggressive model made verbal remarks

  - in a follow up study Bandura found children who were rewards for aggressive acts were more likely to show aggression in their own play
• What is the evaluation of social learning theory

  + useful application

  . Principles of SLT have been applied to increases our understanding of how many areas of human behaviour including criminal behaviour

  . For example Akers suggests that the priv aloft of someone engaging in criminal behaviour increases when they are exposed to models who commit crime, identify with these models and develop the expectations of positive consequences for their own criminal behaviour

  . Ulrich supports this claim in a revenue of literature finding that the strongest cause of violent behaviour in adolescence was association with delinquent peer groups, where violence was both modelled and rewarded

  
  

  + support for identification

  . According to SLT observing a model similar to the self should lead to more learning than observing a dissimilar model

  . Greater identification with a model leads to more learning because it is easier to visualise the self in place of the model so the observer feels as if he or she is having the sane experience

  . Fox and Bailenson found evidence for using computer generated virtual humans engaging in exercise

  or merely loitering. The models looked either similar or dissimilar to participants. Participants who viewed their virtual model engaged in more exercise in 24 hours than those who saw their model loitering or a model dissimilar to them

  
  

  -problems of causality

  . A major criticism of SLT explanations of deviant behaviour relates to its principle concept that increased association with deviant peers increases the likelihood that an individual will adopt the same values and behaviours

  . The problem with this is essentially problem determining causality

  . Siegel & McCornick suggest that people who posses deviant attitudes and values would seek out peers with similar attitudes and behaviours, as they are more fun to be with than less reckless counterparts

  - problems of complexity

  . Only focuses on processes of social learning theory not other potential influences

  . E.g. gender, media and locus of control

  . Difficult to show one thing can influence behaviour
• THE COGNITIVE APPROACH

  What is the cognitive approach?

  . Developed in 1960s as a response to the behaviourists failure to acknowledge mental processes. The development of the 1st computers gave cognitive psychologists a metaphor for describing mental processes

  . Cognitive psychology focuses on how people perceive, store, manipulate and interwoven information; studying processes like perception, memory, thinking and problem solving

  . Much of cognitive psychology uses an information processing model, whereby information received through the senses is processed by various systems i. The brain
• What is the definition of the cognitive approach?

  . The term 'cognitive' has come to mean 'mental processes' so this approach is focused on how our mental processes (thoughts, perceptions etc) affect behaviour
• What is the study of internal mental processes?

  - the cognitive approach studies information processing I.e. ways in which we extract, store and retrieve information that helps to guide our behaviour

  - many different kinds of mental processes contribute to information processing, these include;

  . Selecting important information (attention)

  . Using it to solve problems (thinking)

  . Storing it in memory and retrieving it as and when it's needed

  - the cognitive approach recognises that these mental processes cannot be studied directly but must be studied indirectly by inferring what goes on as a result of measuring behaviour
• What is a schema?

  A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience.
• What is the role of schemas in the cognitive approach?

  - cognitive processing can often be affected by a persons beliefs or expectations, often referred to as a schema

  - schema acts as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system

  - for example you have a schema for a chair - smoke thing with legs that you can sit on

  Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking/grasping

  - schemas are useful as they allow us to take shortcuts when interpreting the huge amount of info we have to deal with on a daily basis. They help us fill the gaps in the absence of full information

  As we get older schemas develop and become more detailed/sophisticated

  - however schemas can also cause us to exclude anything that does not fit in with what we're expecting

  - they may also distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors
• What is cognitive neuroscience?

  - cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structure on mental processes. Mapping brain areas to specific cognitive functions . As early as the 1860's Paul Broca identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe (Broca's area) could permanently impair speech production

  - in the laws twenty years, with the advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and pet scans scientists have been able to systematically observed and describe the neurological basis of mental processes. For example, in the research involving tasks that require the use of episodic and semantic memory, Tulvig et al were able to show how these different types of LTM may be located on opposite sides of the pre-frontal cortex

  - scanning techniques have been useful in establishing the neurological basis of some disorders e.g. the link between the parahippocampal gyrus and OCD. It appears to play a role in processing unpleasant emotions

  - the focus of cognitive neuroscience has expanded recently to include the use of computer- generated models that are designed to 'read' the brain. This has led to the development of mind-mapping techniques known as 'brain fingerprinting'. One possible future application of this could be to analyse the brain wave patterns of eye-witnesses to determining whether they are lying in court.
• What is the evaluation of the cognitive approach?

  + scientific and objective methods

  . The cognitive approach uses highly controlled methods of study in order to enable researchers to infer cognitive processes at work e.g. lbw studies which give reliable/ objective data

  . Cognitive neuroscience has linked biological & cognitive psych and so now the study of the mind has credible scientific basis

  
  

  -applications to everyday life

  . As cognitive psychologists have to infer mental processes from behaviour, cognitive psychology is seems as being too abstract/ theoretical

  . Studies are carried out using artificial stimuli which does not represent real world processes so lacks ecological/external validity

  
  

  - many studies of cognitive psychology tend to use tasks that have little in common with pt.'s natural everyday experiences e.g. memory tasks use lists of words/digits and they are also conducted in laboratory settings- therefore research lacks ecological validity/ mundane realism and findings cannot be generalised to real life

  
  

  - ignores emotion and motivation

  . The cognitive approach tells us how different cognitive processes happen but doesn't tell us why

  . The role of emotion/ motivation is largely ignored

  . This may be because this approach relies on the ideas of computer models which don't have emotion/ motivation involved

  
  

  - limitations of computer models

  . The cognitive approach uses computer models to explain human coding

  . E.g. coding,storage and retrieval are computing terms

  . However the processes in a computer and in a human are very different
• BIOLOGICAL APPROACH

  What is the biological approach?

  -The biological approach views human beings as biological organisms and so provides biological explanations of all aspects of psychological functioning.

  
  

  -Biological psychologists are particularly interested in the geneticc basis -of behaviour, showing how some characteristics can be passed from generation to generation through genes

  
  

  -Biological researchers have also studied the important role that chemical changes in the nervous system (neurochemistry) and hormonal changes play.
• DEFINITIONS OF FACTORS LINKED TO BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION

  What is the definition of the biological approach?

  . Human behaviour is influenced by brain structures and functions, neurotransmitters and genetics

  .All physiological aspects that affect behaviour
• What is the definition of genes?

  .They make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism (such as eye colour, height) and psychological features (such as mental disorder, intelligence)

  .They are transmitted from parents to offspring i.e. inherited
• What is the definition of neurochemistry?


  .Relates to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning.