Deontology

• who was Kant?

  18th century philosopher who wrote 'Groundwork for Metaphysical Ethics' on the subject of duty-bound ethics.
• what is deontology


  duty to fulfil our human nature by using our will and rationality to do what is required.
• what type of theory is deontology

  - non-consequentialist = focused on action, not consequences

  - a priori = categorical imperative is a priori as you can know moral law without reference and experience. you deduce it using pure reason

  - synthetic = could be right/wrong in moral decisions, only act on duty and goodwill.
• what is duty and the goodwill

  - duty is doing what we ought to do (an obligation). what we ought to do is will the good from rational action

  - we can work out our duties/objective moral law through reason (and NOT emotion)

  - once we have established a duty, we are bound to follow it

  - 'to act morally is to do one's duty, and one's duty is to obey the moral law'

  - duties are done for the sake of duties alone

  - e.g. i should tell the truth in this situation, so it's a duty that i tell the truth all the time
• what are the key principles of deontology

  - autonomy = obedience to moral laws laid down by ourselves (choosing our own ways in life and our own morality based on our reason) as opposed to heteronomy. responsibility is on others to be rational, e.g. you should tell the axe murderer the truth and it's not your fault that this would result in death. their actions

  - freedom (lack of rules)

  - maturity

  - obeying the law and fulfilling contractual obligations, e.g. employment (duties)
• what is the aim in deontology

  summum bonum, highest form of living

  it may be in an afterlife, as Kant recognises that this state may not be attainable in one life. similar to eudaemonia , slightly consequentialist
• what is the aim of deontology


  to provide a clear, universal set of ethical guidelines to live by that all rational humans can apply in most situations (to benefit society, although Kant didn't focus on consequences)
• what is an imperative

  type of action/command
• what is the hypothetical imperative

  what we must do to achieve a particular goal. not distinctly moral (no duty to do it) and relates to practical issues. follows an 'if...then' pattern, e.g. if you wish to be a lawyer you must go to law school
• what is the categorical imperative

  that which our reason teaches us must always be done. universal moral law, must be obeyed. actions are right/wrong for everyone
• explain the first maxim of the categorical imperative

  principle of universalisation:

  - never act in such a way that I could not will that my maxim should become universal law (we should only do what we wish others to do)

  - if an action is morally wrong in one situation, it's wrong in all

  - e.g. if everyone lied, it would be self-defeating

  - e.g. if everyone littered, the world would be horrible

  - e.g. stealing from a neighbour; we are also a neighbour so we wouldn't want this to be universalised
• explain the second maxim of the categorical imperative

  treat humanity as an end, never as a means only

  - all human beings are equal and have moral autonomy

  - supports human rights, dignity, justice and equality

  - something is only ever truly good if it's good for someone

  - e.g. slavery is wrong

  - e.g. a king is no better than their subjects
• explain the third maxim of the categorical imperative

  live as if you were a lawmaker in the kingdom of ends

  - act as if our actions made laws for everyone else and vice versa (summation of the above 2 maxims)

  - e.g. if i am kind to someone, everyone should be
• what are the 4 tests. give examples

  as a result of the imperatives, 4 types of duty are imposed

  ABSOLUTE DUTIES (no exceptions, must be obeyed):

  - perfect duties to the self, never committing suicide

  - perfect duties to others, never make a lying promise (always tell the truth)

  IMPERFECT DUTIES (have some leniency on when and how to obey them)

  - imperfect duty to the self, never neglect one's own talents (imperfect as there are lots of ways you can do this and lots of talents)

  - imperfect duty to others, always help others in need (imperfect as again there are lots of ways of doing it)
• how does Kant's theory relate to God

  - Kant argued no argument can prove the existence of God, but that morality points to an afterlife, which implies a God

  - he personally had a faith, but his theory is considered secular
• compare deontology and utilitarianism

  differences:

  - deontology non-consequentialist, utility consequentialist

  - deontology has rules to follow once we've worked them out, but utility has no prescribed rules and is all hypothetical (if... then imperative)

  - outcomes difficult to predict in utility but not deontology

  - categorical imperative is fixed but utility isn't, little consistency

  - deontology won't use people as a means to an end, and doesn't harm minorities, whereas utility can allow these things (justifies immoral actions where deontology doesn't)

  - deontology has no emotional consideration, whereas in utility happiness is central

  similarities:

  - in both, everyone is equal
• outline the strengths of deontology (10)

  - doesn't condone immoral actions

  - once established, provides a clear set of moral guidelines

  - universal, all rational beings can access it

  - removes dilemmas as there's always an answer

  - good end goal (summum bonum)

  - promotes good actions and goodwill

  - everyone is treated equally, protects human rights as people not treated as means

  - recognises sometimes we have to do things we don't want to out of duty

  - allows people to be autonomous and self-directed (no set rules)

  - encourages us to look beyond our animal emotion and inclination, and work towards what is best for all
• what are some issues with the 3 maxims of the categorical imperative

  1. universalisation:

  - can any action be universalised and remain moral, e.g. never lying?

  - generalising that everyone should do something doesn't make it moral (e.g. putting on left shoe first)

  - some situations are particular, e.g. feeling morally obliged to marry someone; you don't want everyone to marry them

  2. priority of ends

  - there are always exceptions, e.g. Churchill deciding whether to evacuate citizens meaning the German's would know they had cracked the Enigma code and risking the war continuing, or letting them be bombed and ending the war

  3. kingdom of ends

  - not everyone is rational
• outline the weaknesses of deontology

  1. can morality be measured by doing your duty? e.g. Nazi guards doing duty, forced marriages, visiting your friend in hospital out of duty. fulfilling duty is not always just

  2. putting duty above feelings is inhuman and unrealistic to ask of us. sometimes we have to lie. e.g. telling an axe murderer where your friend is and subjecting them to death because you think lying is wrong is stupid

  3. universal morals don't exist. Kant doesn't allow for cultural relativism; different societies have different perceptions of right and wrong, e.g. views on abortion, polygamy, homosexuality, war etc.

  4. Kan't approach is unflexible and unrealistic, no regard for particular situations. Vardy: aspires to 'dispassionate reality'

  5. clashes between duties unresolved by imperative, e.g. promising to keep a secret but then being asked about it under oath in court. impossible to fulfil both duties

  6. Kant provides no clear guidance, as there's no clear rules, just the maxims of the categorical imperati
• explain Singer and Hume's criticism of deontology

  Singer

  - criticises Kant for removing element of sympathy and emotion from ethics

  - 'duty for its own sake' leads to a 'closed system' in which people don't look at the reasons for their actions, which is dangerous

  - no sympathy can lead to 'moral fanaticism', duty above all consideration of humanity, e.g. ISIS, IRA

  Hume:

  - argues morality is an emotional 'gut feeling' (intuition, not reason), instigated by sympathy
• explain WD Ross' contemporary view of deontology


  - attempted to amend some of the classical problems

  - argues in most circumstances, we intuitively know and should follow our duties (binding) and implies they are self evident

  - however, he argues there are times when they can be overridden and exceptions can be allowed

  - has 6 groups of duties, e.g. fidelity, reparation and justice

  - no absolute science on what we can actually think/do, but it's better for society if we don't lie/pay our debts.
• explain Nagel's contemporary view of deontology

  - in daily life we assume there are some fixed duties and expect others to obey them too, e.g. fairness, loyalty, honesty.

  - CI promotes justice and rights and that it's a good maxim for all humans to be treated equally.