Environmental Ethics

• what is environmental ethics

  how decisions should be made on the use of the Earth's resources and how we should treat other species.

  it's an issue as resources are limited and running out, e.g. coal and oil
• why should we protect the environment

  - moral obligation

  - makes our lives better

  - makes others lives better

  - makes the lives of future generations better
• outline some environmental issues

  Use of resources: most resources are finite so we must decide how to use them in a sustainable way, which doesn't cause lasting damage. our over-consumption of energy means that others can't afford it and there's massive disparity between rich and poor in terms of resources. Over-exploitation of resources, e.g. overfishing, means that species like sharks are going extinct due to by-catch (50, mill sharks killed a year), sea beds are being destroyed, and people who rely on fishing for their livelihood are now being forced out of business as larger corporations move further out to find fish, e.g. Somali pirates

  
  

  Climate change: increased levels of CO2 in the atmosphere has led to global warming, leading to more frequent extreme weather events, e.g. drought in East Africa, sea levels rising which will lead to Maldives being underwater, increased conflict due to lack of resources and also not enough action being taken due to lack of leadership, e.g. Trump saying that the Chinese fabricated global warming and disagreements between scientists, e.g. in 2009, emails were leaked between scientists which suggested that they were fabricating data to support human-caused climate change. This has led to many people not believing in climate change and 'environmental fatigue' (people getting bored with these issues), e.g. 25% british people said they didn't believe climate change was taking place

  
  

  Wildlife conservation: resource depletion and climate change leads to loss of habitats which is leading to animal and plant species being threatened/extinct. some animals are also targeted for human benefit, e.g. ivory of rhinos and elephants, only 3 white rhinos now exist as ivory seen to be beneficial in Chinese medicine.. our over-consumption, e.g. for coltan needed to produce phones has led to gorillas being threatened in the East Congo.

  
  

  other issues include: plastics, waste management, air,water,light and noise pollution, deforestation and non-renewable resources.
• what does Peter Vardy suggest as practical ideals for dealing with climate change

  - educate people to reduce, reuse and recycle

  - tax businessed on carbon emissions, waste and pollution

  - government agreements on carbon emission reduction targets

  - global action to enforce policies, e.g. Kyoto protocol
• What is the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change?

  1994, 198 countries which are parties to the convention

  - recognises the problem of climate change

  - aims to stabilize greenhouse gas emissions to a level which would prevent anthropogenic (human induced) interference with the climate system and do this in a sufficient time frame to let nature adapt to climate change

  - puts pressure on developed countries to effect this change and makes them update

  - directs funds to climate change activities in developing countries to help them adapt
• What is the Kyoto Protocol?

  1997, 192 parties involved. enforces UN Framework Convention on Climate Change as the convention itself has no real authority and is only a guideline. therefore it's based on the principles of the convention and sets binding emission reduction targets for 37 industrialised countries

  Adaptation Fund was also set up to aid developing countries adapt
• What was the Rio Declaration?

  1992, believed long term economic progress is only ensured of it's linked with the protection of the environment.

  - development shouldn't threaten the needs of present and future generations

  - nations have a right to exploit their own resources but can't cause damage elsewhere

  - sustainable development is tied in with eradicating poverty

  - polluter should bear the cost of pollution

  - environment legislation is necessary and nations should share knowledge and technologies.
• What is the Assisi Declaration?

  1986

  - all creation has a close interdependence which was made this way by God

  - humans have a role of protecting all created things; not abusing/destroying them

  - all types of exploitation of the world, its resources and all creatures is rejected
• What is the Paris Climate Agreement?

  2016, legally binding international treaty on climate change adopted by 196 parties at COP21

  goal is to hold the increase in average global temperature to well below 2 degrees C above pre-industrial levels, because if we surpass this level it will lead to sever impacts, e.g. severe drought
• who are A Rocha

  interdenominational christian organisation

  - protects habitats, e.g. grasslands by working with locals

  - carries out research and conservation programmes in local communities

  - runs out environmental education programmes

  - does scientific research and works with other organisations
• what is waste management

  helps to reduce all types of pollution and leads to less diseases. helps to conserve energy and reduce consumption, e.g. of paper as it can be recycled, leading to less deforestation. waste can be converted to energy and creates employment opportunity.

  some waste generates methane (greenhouse gas) which is explosive and contributes to climate change and some waste is dumped in poorer countries as it's cheaper
• what is sustainability

  responsibility to conserve natural resources and protect global ecosystems to support health and well-being now and for future generations.

  sustainability can be useful as well, e.g. renewable energy companies create a lot of money for the economy

  idea that goods and services should be produced in ways which don't use up resources in order to meet the needs of future generations
• what is conservation

  protecting the earth's natural resources for current and future generations and not using them wastefully.

  includes maintaining diversity of species, genes and ecosystems as well as functions of the environment, e.g. nutrient cycling.

  increasing population has made conservation difficult due to overconsumption, leading to loss of habitats, climate change and pollution

  some practices include;removal of invasive species, setting aside protected areas for wildlife and plants and setting up organisations, e.g. US; Endangered Species Act
• what is dominion

  - anthropocentric view (human-centred)

  - the natural world is for the benefit of humans and we have dominion over the natural world (power and supremacy overall)

  - only humans have moral status

  - therefore the only reason to look after the environment is to benefit humans and increase our happiness

  - Aquinas agrees
• what is Biblical support for dominion

  Genesis 1-3: only humans made in the 'image of God' in the creation story so animals aren't equal

  Genesis 1.26: 'let them have dominion over the fish of the sea and birds of the air'

  Genesis 2: 'till and keep the Earth' (in the Garden of Eden)
• what are some strengths of dominion

  - humans have higher God-given status of natural creation

  - humans are very intelligent and have good reasoning; we have envolved to control a lot of nature, e.g. travelling on water, so should be in charge

  - nature is blind and non-reasoning so we have control over it

  - developing civilization should take precedence over nature

  - Lomborg said that we need to develop to protect ourselves from the environment

  - only humans have moral status
• what are some weakenesses of dominion

  - Peter Singer: this view is 'speciest' as humans and animals should be given equal consideration because, although different, they both have 'sentience' (ability to suffer/enjoy their lives/ express preference). 'best interests of all concerned'

  - animals have rationality and intelligence as well, e.g. orcas have different 'languages' dependent on location)

  - we need nature to survive; we need it more than it needs us

  - we've damaged nature so much

  - just because we have power doesn't mean we should use it

  - stewardship: humans have responsibility to care for nature

  - nature isn't inferior just because we have evolved as higher beings

  - deep ecology

  - civilisation should not be expanded at the expense of nature

  COMPROMISE: nature is important and although we have higher status we still have a duty to care for it
• what is stewardship

  - theocentric view (God-centred)

  - the world is God's creation and therefore humans must use the environment to glorify God

  - we have a responsibility to protect the environment as we're custodians/caretakers of God's creation

  - all creatures have intrinsic value

  - associated with St.Francis of Assisi, patron of animals

  - Pope Francis has emphasized global warming as a priority issue for the catholic church
• what is Biblical support for stewardship


  Revelation 7-9: 'it was commanded they should not hurt the grass of the Earth, neither any green thing, neither any tree'

  Psalm 19: God works in and through nature
• what are some strengths of stewardship

  - takes issues of environment seriously

  - gives humans big responsibility

  - exploitation at others expense is seen as socially unjust
• what are some weaknesses of stewardship

  - how do we decide which actions glorify God, e.g. development when there's inequality

  - human-centred approaches have caused destruction of the planet

  - focus on God being in control limits human responsibility
• what is end of time theology

  - literal interpretation of the Bible, extreme fundamentalists in USA

  - welcome destruction of the environment as a sign of the Apocalypse (second coming of christ) which is the end of the world, so believe we should do nothing to help the environment

  Revelation 6: describes this end of time collapse of the environment
• what are issues with end of time theology

  - unfair/uncompassionate

  - encourages passivity on environmental issues

  - may have another agenda

  - ignorant and irresponsible
• what is Kant's view on the environment

  - idea of universalizability = we should only do something that we think everyone else should do, e.g. not litter, so we should care for the environment as we'd want everyone else to

  - Principle of humanity = rules out selfish actions

  - anthropocentric mainly; only rational beings have absolute, conditional value

  - e.g. Kant would reject cruelty to animals and say we should treat them with respect not because it's intrinsically wrong but because someone who's cruel to an animal is more likely to be cruel to other humans, meaning it has an impact on humans
• NML view on the environment

  - precept 'to educate' applies to environmental education

  - shouldn't kill animals because then they can't fulfil their God-given purpose

  - however humans and animals aren't equal because only humans have been given reason by God, and are therefore superior (anthropocentric)

  - real and apparent goods, e.g. a new phone is an apparent good because it doesn't lead to human flourishment, and creation of petrol is an apparent good

  - precept 'to worship God' - is care for the environment part of worship

  - agrees with dominion

  - however has no practical ideas on how to solve environmental problems and doesn't give environment intrinsic value
• confucianism view on the environment

  - concern for the cultivation of human relations towards a harmonious society

  - humanistic but concerned with the harmony between heaven, earth and the natural order as these make up the Chinese trinity. humans embedded in a web of relationships which need to be properly maintained to preserve this harmony

  - stresses important of co-operative group effort so that individual concerns are sublimated to a larger sense of the common good

  - Mary Tucker says that the universe is seen as 'unified, interconnected and interpenetrating'

  - general ideology which is difficult to apply to specific issues
• what is shallow ecology

  - anthropocentric view; only humans have moral status

  - animals, plants and habitats have only extrinsic, instrumental value for the benefit they offer to humans. sees the environment as a pragmatic affair; only care for it if it's in humans best interests to do so

  - formed the underlying arguments of the Rio Convention and Kyoto Protocol

  e.g. forest may be preserved only if particular plant and animal species in it will provide us with medicines, food and raw materials; if not, we can damage it

  - Michael la Bossiere argues that species should be allowed to die out as it's part of the natural process of evolution, and even if a species becomes extinct due to human activity it's still natural as humans are also a part of nature

  - however, a weakness is that some believe contact with the natural world is part of a good life, and therefore beneficial to humans intrinsically
• what is Arne Naess' deep ecology

  - began in 1994 with Aldo Leopold's book, A Sand Country Alamanac which promotes the inclusion of the land in environmental concern and our social conscience

  - Arne Naess published a paper in 1973 outlining the 2 types of ecology: shallow and deep.

  - Naess argues that the environment has intrinsic value and that every being is equal (ecosophy, unity of all things) therefore humans are not more important

  - humans should 'tread lightly on the earth, only satisfy vital needs'

  - Naess influenced by Indic religions, e.g. Hinduism and Ghandi; aspects like the Atman as part of creation

  - utilitarian approach as it considers the best interests of all concerned

  - all of nature has a spiritual reality which should be respected (we're all mutually dependent)

  - anthropomorphic view, gives human characteristics to nature, e.g. making a road through the mountain is cutting through the 'heart' of it

  - campaigned against building hydroelectric power plants in 1960 in Norway (peaceful protest)

  - ideas seen in Rachel Carson's book, Silent Spring, which demonstrates interconnectedness through a study of the use of pesticides and how the effect is felt through the food chain
• what are Arne Naess and George Sessions (American philosopher) eight-fold deep ecology platoform

  1. all life has equal intrinsic value

  2. diversity of life on earth contributes to the planets welfare

  3. no single life form has a right to destroy the earth's diversity and richness

  4. human beings are the cause of destruction of diversity and richness

  5. growth of population and changing lifestyles are the primary cause of this destruction

  6. change is urgently needed to prevent further damage and to restore ecosystem's variety

  7. change requires peaceful protest and campaigns to alter the structures and organisations that undermine biodiversity
• what does Naess recommend to reduce human impact on the environment

  reduce population size, abandon economic growth, conserve diversity of species and live in small self-reliant communities
• what is eco-holism/Gaia hypothesis

  - developed by James Lovelock in 1979

  - Gaia = greek goddess of earth

  - all living things on earth (biosphere) function as a super-organism that changes its environment to create conditions that meet its needs, with the ability to self-regulate critical systems needed to sustain life. emphasis on interdependence

  - 'earth behaves as a single, self-regulating organism'

  - origins in Plato (who believed the world is a body made up of the 4 elements, and is 'completely free from age and sickness'

  - believes that the earth has a soul and lungs (anthropomorphism) which can be seen in the work of early scientists, e.g. Francis Bacon who viewed the planets as living organisms

  - we are only a tiny part of Gaia, meaning she would survive without us; if we abuse her we risk our own survival as she owes us nothing and we owe her our existence

  - life cannot be destroyed, e.g. life has returned where nuclear bombs were tested

  - believed we're moving to a 'hot epoch' in which 7/8 people will die

  - advocates nuclear power to reduce the effects of climate change as we have caused too much damage for gaia to solve
• what are the strengths and weaknesses of deep ecology

  +: - has led to acceptance of strong relationship between everything on earth

  - raises nature to a higher status

  -: -scientists don't support it

  - Dawkins says it contradicts Darwinian evolution

  - impractical for everyone to live how Naess dictates; idealistic and more of a philosophical view
• differences between shallow and deep ecology

  shallow:

  - seeks solutions to environmental problems in human interest

  - focus on benefit to humans

  - short-term targets

  - more practical/attainable

  - roots in Abrahamic religions

  deep:

  - radical philosophical view that seeks to change human behaviours and attitudes to the environment. concern for nature first and foremost

  - focus on benefit to nature

  - mutual dependence highlighted

  - long-term targets

  - deeper approach

  - roots in Indic religions

  e.g. shallow ecology promotes recycling whereas deep ecology would consider preventing humans making that waste in the first place
• virtue ethics on the environment


  - doesn't concern why environmental preservation is important for the environment, but what characterizes an environmentally good person

  - shifts emphasis from duty and consequence to who we are and how we live in the natural world

  - a virtuous life in nature is a necessary condition for human flourishing (eudaemonia) so extremes of behaviours are unhelpful for society and nature

  - Roger Scrunton argues that since humans are the highest species on the planet, they fulfil their nature when they safeguard the environment and animals, and don't use them simply for their own ends

  - environmental damage must be minimized and done with regret to reflect good character
• preference utility view on the environment

  - preference of all sentient beings is crucial, not just humans, should be regarded as equal

  - supports deep ecology, but doesn't include plants (contradiction?), meaning he believes the environment as a whole doesn't have intrinsic value, although he does argue for 'world heritage sites' as they'll have increased value over time

  - always predicting happiness of future generations as there's no guarantee
• utility view on the environment
• Buddhist view on the environment
• animal rights