Life and work of the Buddha

• what does the contextual background to the Buddha cover

  pre-Buddhism and the influences on the Buddha

  6th century BCE

  environmental, social, religious and cultural influnces

  this helps us understand Buddhism more
• what is the Indus Valley Civilization

  - originated in modern day Pakistan, which was once northern India

  - it had lots of rivers which flooded twice a year creating fertile land for agriculture

  - had a city with a population of 80,000

  - was advanced and had water and drainage systems, good baths and economy and appeared to trade cotton cloth with other countries, using their seal

  - peaceful, little evidence of weapons but did have a social structure

  the river dried before the Buddha's time and the indigenous indian people migrated elsewhere and had developed
• what was the significance of the Aryan invasion of the Indus Valley

  In 1500 BCE the Aryans invaded peacefully and slowly over a long period of time - they were from Indo-Europe and thought to be Iranian and southern-Russian, the claimed birthplace of writing

  The Aryans brought with them the beginning of the first Vedic scripture, the Rig Vedas which was a much more structured religion than those previously practiced which eventually led to the development of Hinduism

  the Aryans also formalised the social structure and introduced the caste system which was initially intended for organising job roles
• what was the political organisation like in 6th Century India

  ancient India was divided into kingdoms (cities/towns/villages) which were divided between:

  monarchies - where a king/'clan leader' would rule

  republics - where an elected group would lead, rulers would always be upper caste however

  organisation was key as India is such a vast place and is still maintained now

  religion is integrated within politics
• what was society like at the time of the Buddha


  - economic growth destabilised the brahminical order due to the construction in tools leading to prosperity and strong trade

  - first use of money and growth of towns, new professions introduced

  - Gombrich suggests that the high population densities of new towns made illness and death seem more prevalent and widespread, leading people to accept the 4 noble truths

  - economic growth was also vital to the development of monastic communities
• what is the caste system

  a social stratification system which was believed to be divinely inspired, the roots of which have been alluded to the Rig Veda and more specifically the Hymn of the Cosmic Man, which involves the primeval man being created from Brahma and each part of his body representing a part of society

  traditionally a way of organising society and was initially associated to job roles

  subsections of castes (jatis) exist also
• what are the castes/Varnas

  - Brahmins (priestly caste, white), considered spiritually superior and usually lighter skinned, associated with the origins of the Aryans, but it's not based on skin colour or priesthood

  - Kshatriyas (warrior/ruling caste, red), duty to keep rule and maintain justice, closely associated with Brahmins and occupy top jobs, Buddha would've been in this caste but lived in Nepal so may not have been affected by it

  - Vaishyas (merchants, tradespeople, brown), top 3 castes are closer to achieving enlightenment and bottom 2 castes cannot achieve enlightenment, middle position

  - Shudras (unskilled labourers and servants, black)
• what are the Dalits (broken people) /untouchables

  those considered too lowly and spiritually impure to be within the caste system

  it's believed they're in this place because of karma and they must fulfil their role and duty to perhaps be reincarnated as a higher caste

  - some agree with the system but not exploitation

  - some don't agree with the concept at all

  at the time of the Buddha there was no social mobility so explains why Buddha placed emphasis on happiness coming from within, as one cannot change their external conditions

  Buddhism = anti-caste

  dalits receive opportunities now but are still treated extremely poorly
• what are the implications of the caste system

  traditionally only top 3 castes could study the Vedas and attain enlightenment, the bottom caste and dalits were considered spiritually impure and in a state of spiritual 'pollution'

  sometimes the kshatriyas would challenge the authority of the brahmins

  many attempted to fight the system and rejected it

  initially this was not supposed to be a system of exploitation and upper castes should be charitable to lower castes as the belief is at some point during reincarnations a person would've been in all castes

  however there is little sympathy as it's believed to be your responsibility for your position

  castes are generally identifiable by:

  - skin tone, but this isn't certain

  - where a person lives

  - job

  - name

  - marriage/family

  society was divided and segregated by the caste system
• what were the three dominant religions/thought systems at the time of the Buddha

  Vedic Tradition

  Shramana movement

  Folk religion

  all are interconnected as many Hindus were also Shramanas are were very influential on the Buddha and his development of Buddhism
• explain the basis of the Vedic tradition/Brahminism

  a religion based on the Vedas and initially the Rig Vedas scriptures, which are thought to have originated from the Aryans and were imported when they invaded. the rest of the Rig Vedas and the other Vedas were written in India. the religion itself is thought to be a fusion of the Aryans beliefs and the beliefs of the indigenous people of India.

  rest are written by ancient sages based on insight into the Dharma

  traditionally animal sacrifice was carried out by priests to please the God's and ask for favours, maintaining good order of the universe

  the Vedas were written in Sanksrit which is the sacred language of India, but traditionally it was only understood by the educated elite, others spoke different dialects
• what are the scriptures involved in the Vedic tradition

  4 vedas - Veda meaning 'knowledge (of the Gods)'

  1st - Rig Vedas, oldest scriptures in the world and Hinduism, contained hymns, praises to the gods, spells and purification rituals seen to be a universal, eternal truth

  2nd - Upanishads (aka as Vedanta/'conclusion of the Vedas', developed in the last century of the Vedic period (much later) and based on Hindu philosophy; it's the philosophical element to the Vedic tradition. Upanishads = 'sitting close' referring to the way a teacher would sit in nature with an intimate group of disciples. Upanishads emphasise the personal as oppose to public dimension of religion and replaced animal sacrifice with inner sacrifice of our ego and selfish emotions. Hinduism today mostly based on Upanishads. represents oneness of all things and introduced Brahma (universal spirit), Atman (spark of divinity, inner godliness) and unity

  Great epics came later; myths
• what are some key beliefs of the Vedic tradition, developed in the Upanishads

  - Brahma is the impersonal universal spirit and the unity and interconnectedness behind all things, an underlying reality. everything is a part of Brahma and this is recognised by cooling down the ego and the self. Brahma = original source which everything comes from

  - all of the Gods are manifestations of Brahma. Gods connected traditionally to natural world/forces and personality traits and all Gods represent a different aspects of Brahma, they're elements/metaphors of ultimate reality. Hindus choose which deities to worship

  - the Atman is the permanent soul, the inner godliness, the spark of divinity and the aim is to reunite this with the Brahma, the original source where the Atman comes from. the Atman is stuck in the cycle of Samsara and is constantly reincarnated and the aim is to escape and attain enlightenment, which can only be done through good karmic action

  - good karmic action is gained through moral action but also fulfilment of duties, e.g. religious ceremonies (Puja)

  - Mokasha = 'release' (of the Atman from the cycle of Samsara), enlightenment, the connection with one's inner godliness, liberation, psychological change, seeing the interconnectedness of all things and the Dharma; reunification of the Atman with the one true Brahma occurs after enlightened person dies. gained through duty (to religion, society and family), good karmic action and renunciation (considered to be the last of 4 stages of Hindu life)

  - Dharma = eternal truth and duty to family, society (upholding job role and being a good member of society) and religion

  - karma, past actions affect current status, how well you fulfil your duty and do good karmic actions affect you in the next life, intentional actions plant karmic seeds
• what is the history of jainism (a part of the shramana movement)

  Jainism = 'to conquer', referring to the aescetic battle against passions and bodily senses to gain enlightenment

  emerged between 7th-5th century BCE in Ganges region, emerging religion at the time of the Buddha, during a time of religious speculation when Brahminism was beginning to be opposed

  the first Jain figure is Prarshvanatha who was a renunciant teacher and considered the 23rd Tirthankara (meaning 'ford-maker', one who leads the way across the stream of rebirths to salvation, who has gained enlightenment)

  the 24th and last Tirthankara is Mahavira ('great hero') who was regarded to be a close contemporary of the Buddha and established many followers; he originated from a similar background to the Buddha before becoming a renunciant

  Jains believe that their tradition doesn't have a historical founder

  texts containing Mahavira's teachings are called the Agamas

  Jain's divided into two major sects; Digambara's, monks should be naked, nuns shouldn't exist, Svetambara's, monks and nuns should wear white robes
• what are some key beliefs of the Jain tradition

  - the path to enlightenment is through strict non-violence and reducing harm to living beings as much as possible, allowing us to eliminate karma from the soul

  - by renouncing and practising severe austerity, one can also help to neutralise bad karma

  - reincarnation; this cycle is determined by one's karma. bad karma is caused by harming living things and attaining enlightenment allows us to escape this continuous cycle so the immortal soul can live forever in the highest heaven in a state of infinite bliss

  - all animals, plants and some non-living things (air and water) contain living souls which are of equal value and should be treated with respect and compassion

  - they're strict vegetarians and minimise their use of the world's resources

  - karma comes from all actions, intentional or accidental, so they attempt to not destroy any life by being vegetarian, wearing face masks to not inhale bugs, checking food before they eat it, sweeping their paths before they step and not eating root vegetables

  - have 4 additional vows as well as ahimsa: don't lie, steal, show sexual restraint and don't become attached to worldly possessions

  - use the Swaschtika, which represents cycle of samsara and the 4 rebirths possible (e.g. God, animal, human, plant)

  - extremely charitable and the only pacifist religion

  - interdependent relationships between monastics and householders

  - anti-caste on a personal level but may be affected by it

  - promote tolerance of other views as they all make up the truth

  - every being is a transmigrating soul, which moves from body to body
• what is the shramana movement

  a collective name for renounciants of the traditions, who were traditionally from the upper castes and rejected the rigidity of Brahminism

  they may wander in groups/in solitude in forests/cities and may have followers

  have renounced the householder life and worldly possessions to search for spiritual truth, and is still present

  rely on donations for their existence

  some practice extreme denial, such as hair pulling, denying sleep, holding breath, hanging upside down, starvation (jainism)

  some renounciants have individual philosophies but others are part of religions, e.g. the vedic tradition

  the Buddha engaged with 4 shramana groups: the Ajavikas, Jains, Sceptics and materialists
• what did the Ajavikas believe

  - adhered to teachings of Makkhali Gosala

  - we have many lives which are all pre-destined and are reborn continuously, so moral causation/karma doesn't exist, there's no reward / punishment for actions

  - being an Ajavika (renounciant), is a sign you're on your last life as you've reached the highest level of wisdom after which they come to final peace and are no longer reborn

  - believe in being peaceful and ahimsa because it's good practice and dedicating our lives to spirituality.
• what do the materialists believe

  - also known as Lokayatas (Loka indicating their concern with the material things and the natural world)

  - modern day atheists, believe only the material world exists so there's no life after death, no karma, no God

  - believe humans are made up of the natural elements, air, earth, fire, air, wind and water and that consciousness is the reaction between these elements

  - believe in free will

  - when we die, we return to our natural elements

  - the purpose of choosing good action is pleasure, life should have maximum pleasure and minimum pain (utility)
• what do sceptics believe

  'those who sit on the fence', also known as agnostics

  have no answers to big questions, e.g. on life after death or whether we have a soul, all approached in a non-commital way

  believe humans cannot definitively know any answers to big questions with any certainty

  avoided arguments as they produce bad temper and feeling so instead tried to cultivate friendship and peace of mind
• what do folk religions believe

  these were the dominant religions before Aryan invasion formalised the religion - Hinduism seen as umbrella term for many beliefs which have a common thread, no central authority

  sometimes associated with lower castes, localised village-based beliefs which reflect Hinduism

  involves practices such as fortune telling/palmistry

  some villages worship rats/snakes/goats depending on individual beliefs of the village
• what are some similarities in the Indian religions

  - Ahimsa

  - our current life is underpinned by suffering, something which we should liberate/emancipate ourselves from this

  - the renounciant/aescetic life is the spiritual ideal

  - belief in higher states of consciousness

  - practices of meditation
• what are some principles the Buddha completely rejected from society

  - the caste system as he believed all beings could reach enlightenment and discrimination goes against Ahimsa and doesn't promote compassion. believed it's how a person thinks and behaves that matters and that people are capable of change, so the caste system is too rigid. also rejected notion of caste system as divinely inspired

  - hierarchy of Aryan society

  - the use of intoxicants to attain enlightenment as one has to be aware and have clarity of mind, therefore allowing them control
• what are some religious principles the Buddha completely rejected

  - the authority of the Vedic scriptures

  - animal sacrifice

  - extreme aescitism and any severe practised as after experiencing it, he saw that it doesn't lead to personal liberation, and instead developed idea of moderation

  - rejected Brahman, Atman and mythology due to a lack of empirical evidence and permanence of these ideas

  - rejected Ajavika and Materialist view of no karma, as these philosophies undermine morality but also the Jain's concept that every action has karmic consequences

  - rejected polytheism of Vedic tradition

  - rejected solitary life of aescetics as being alone for long periods of time can be detrimental to the mind

  - rejected Ajavika notion of predestination

  - rejected Materialist notion that life is only physical

  - rejected worship to extrenal beings in Folk traditions

  - rejected Sceptics as they do not follow their wisdom, leading to an impasse
• what are some religious principles the Buddha accepted/redefined

  - accepted reincarnation but replaced idea of Atman (permanent soul) with Anatta

  - accepted the law of karma in the Upanishads, and maintained that only intentional actions have karmic consequences

  - reformed the Dharma

  - accepted idea that suffering is related to ignorance and the goal is to free ourselves from this state

  - accepted ideas of enlightenment and Samsara

  - accepted Upanishad movement towards a personal religion which focuses on ones mind and emotions

  - accepted aescetic lifestyle

  - accepted empirical observation as the divine force not cosmic power

  - accepted Sceptic idea that some questions cannot be answered, but that there's no point speculating

  - tolerated folk religions but not the idea that external factors, e.g. spirits could lead to liberation

  - Ahimsa
• why did Buddhism have appeal at the time

  - realistic, rational and reasonable expectations and way to be happy

  - maintains familiar principles from other religions so makes transition easy

  - open to all (householders and renunciants) and appealed to all castes, encouraged community via the Sangha and was a compassionate religion

  - offered a middle path between extreme ascetics and rigid Brahminism

  - not about worshipping Gods, focuses on humans and our inner journey

  - flexible, includes everyone and has common concepts for both

  - more organised and clear-cut than Hinduism

  moved out of India quickly but never became a dominant religion and is still only a small tradition in india today