Essay plans for paper 1

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Created by
daniele sateikaite

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Cards (46)

  • Social influence

    Outline and evaluate normative and informational influence explanations of conformity
    AO1
    > conformity results from exposure to a majority group
    > internalisation (deepest) - agree with others in public and private
    > identification - adopt behaviour to be associated with a group
    > compliance (shallowest) - appear to agree in public but disagree in private to gain approval

    AO1
    > normative social influence is desire to be liked
    > informational social influence is desire to be right

    AO3
    > research support by Asch line study
    > 75% conformed on at least one trial due to NSI
    > lacks ecological validity, biased sample of 50 males, lacks population validity
    > research support by Lucas math question study
    > people conform due to ISI
    > high ecological validity

    AO3
    > Ethical issues
    > Asch's study involved deception anf therefore ppt couldnt give informed consent,ppt werent protected from psychological harm
    >ppt given a debrief after

    AO3
    > dual process model
    > Deutsch and Gerrard say ISI and NSI work together
    > Jenness bean jar

    AO3
    > Real world applications
    > people exposed to negative beliefs about African Americans (they were lead to believe this was the majority view) later reported more negative beliefs about a black individual
    > demonstrates how some social stereotypes formSee an expert-written answer!We have an expert-written solution to this problem!
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  • Social influence

    Outline and evaluate research into variables affecting conformity
    AO1
    > Asch's original study

    AO1
    > Increasing group size increases conformity
    > Unanimity decreases conformity
    > Increasing task difficulty increases conformity


    AO3
    > Artificial tasks
    > lack ecological validity
    > lack munane realism

    AO3
    > High internal validity
    > strict controls over extraneous variables such as timings
    > Cause and effcet relationship can be established

    AO3
    > lacks population validity
    > only male american ptp
    > gender bias as it is assumed findings from males are the same for females
    > beta bias so cannot be generalised

    AO3
    > lacks temporal validity
    > Perrin and Spencer replicated Asch's experiment
    > cultural change altered value on conformity
    View source
  • Social influence

    Outline and evaluate Zimbardo's research into conformity to social roles
    AO1
    > aim - 24 male undergrad students
    > procedure - Male sudents allocated randomly to be either guards or prisoners. They were to spend 2 weeks in cells. Prisoners were arrested from their homes, stripped and given uniforms and a number. Prison guards were given uniforms, sticks, and mirrored glasses.
    > findings - Experiment ended after only 6 days. Guards became brutal, 2 prisoners had nervous breakdowns, 1 developed a nervous rash, 1 went on hunger strike, prisoners became apathetic and mindlessly followed orders
    > conclusions - Participants conformed to social roles. Deindividualisation of participants may have lead to them losing all sense of responsibility

    AO3
    > lacks internal validity
    > ptp display demand characteristics
    > cant be generalised

    AO3
    > lacks population validity
    > sample of american males
    > gender bias as it is assumed findings from males are the same for females
    > beta bias so cannot be generalised
    > cant be generalised to other cultures

    AO3
    > ethical issues
    > lack of fully informed consent and protection from psychological harm
    > debriefed the ptp about aims

    AO3
    > Real world applications
    > lead to imporved ethical issues so future studies safer, less harmful to ptp
    > US prison reforms
    View source
  • Social influence

    Outline and evaluate Milgram's research into obedience
    AO1
    > aim - whether people obey a figure of authority when told to harm another person
    > procedure - ptp is the teacher and paired with learner confederate, when cfr answered wrong ptp asked to give shock, experimenter gave prods
    > findings - 100% went up to 300V, 65% went up to 450V
    > conclusions - participants were willing to obey orders even when they might harm another person.

    AO3
    > real life applications
    > obedience resulted in negative social change by disctators such as Hitler
    > awareness of social order importance

    AO3
    > high internal validity
    > data gathered by Milgram showed that 70% of participants believed shocks were real, low demand characteristics

    AO3
    > lacks ecological validity
    > tasks are atrificial, method lacks mundane realism
    > gannot be generalised to settings outside of the lab

    AO3
    > research support by Hofling et al nurses
    > 95% of nurses in a hospital obeyed a doctor over the phone when asked to double patients meds over the limit
    > adds credibility to research
    View source
  • Social influence

    Outline and evaluate situational variables affecting obedience
    AO1
    > location - offices = 47.5%
    > proximity - teacher and learner in same room = 40%
    - teacher forces learner hand onto plate to receive shock = 30%
    - experimenter instructs teacher from another room = 20.5%
    > uniform - experimenter is replaced by a cfr in everydaay clothes = 20%

    AO1
    > cultural differences
    > USA males = 65%
    > USA females = 65%
    > Germany males = 85%
    > UK males = 50 %
    > Jordan students = 62%
    > Australia females = 16%
    > Italy students = 85%

    AO3
    > research support by Bickman
    > male researchers gave orders to 153 pedestrians dressed in a suit and tie, milkman's uniform (40%), guard's uniform (80)
    > more likely to conform to guard

    AO3
    >
    >
    >
    View source
  • Social influence

    Outline and evaluate dispositional factors (the authoritarian personality) as an explanation of obedience
    AO1
    > Adorno's authoritarian personality
    > hostile to inferior people, servile to superiors, rigid and imflexible, intolerant of ambiguity, upholder of conventional values, reaction formation
    > Traits measured using the F scale (uses likert rating scale)

    AO1
    > origin of authoritarian personality
    > harsh, punishing and disciplinarian upbringing, little affection
    > created resentment and latent hostility towards parents displaced onto minority groups - psychodynamic approach
    > surface = idolise parents, unconscious = fear and despise them

    AO3
    > methodological issues with the F scale
    > response bias - social desirability bias
    > lacks internal validity

    AO3
    > Milgram and Elms research support
    > a link between obedience participants and a high F-scale score
    > having an authoritarian personality is associated with obedience

    AO3
    > correlational study
    > no causal relationship identified
    > Cant be generalised to the population

    AO3
    > low ecological validity
    > cant explain real life situations
    > unlikely all Nazi has an authoritarian personality so explanation is limitedSee an expert-written answer!We have an expert-written solution to this problem!
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  • Social influence

    Outline and evaluate the agentic state and legitimacy of authority as explanations of obedience
    AO1
    > agentic state - people allow others to direct their actions, pass off responsibility
    > autonomous state - people act according to their own values, accept responsibility
    > agentic shift - change from autonomous state to agentic state
    > moral strain - realising what theyre doing is wrong but doing it as an agent of authority
    > binding agents - aspects of the situation mean the individual is able to take away their own 'moral strain' and ignore their damaging behaviour

    AO1
    > legitimacy of authority -
    > how credible the figure of authority isand whether people are likely to obey them
    > legitimacy of the system
    > LOA within the system
    > legitimacy of demands
    > expert authority
    > destructive authority

    AO3
    > Real life applications
    > Massacre at My Lai
    > High external validity

    AO3
    > Cannot explain why all ptp in Milgram's experiment didnt comply
    > they should have all been in an agentic state

    AO3
    > Cultural support
    > In countries where obedience and deference to authority is less valued (such as Australia), obedience rates are much lower than in countries that value legitimate authority figures (such as Germany)
    > legitimacy of authority does play a part in obedience.

    AO3
    >
    >
    >
    View source
  • Social influence

    Outline and evaluate explanations of resistance to social influence
    AO1
    > internal locus of control - behaviour caused by personal efforts
    > ILOC obey less
    > external locus of control - behaviour caused by luck/fate
    > ELOC obey more

    AO1
    > social support
    > non-conforming allies decrease conformity - Asch unanimity
    > increase resistance to social influence

    AO3
    > Research support by milgram for social support
    > obedience dropped from 65% to 10% when the ptp joined by disobedient model, independent behaviour increased
    > gave confodence to reject authority


    AO3
    > Asch and Milgram studies lack population and external validity
    > the tasks were artificial and lack mundane realism so can't be generalised outside of the lab
    > ptp mostly male Americans so cannot be generalized to females or other cultures
    > suffers from cultural bias and beta bias

    AO3
    > cultural change has not been accounted for
    > Twenge found that Americans have become more resistant to social infulence but more ELOC
    > weakens suggestion that increase in ILOC leads to an increase in resistance
    > low temporal validity as findings cannot be generalized to present day

    AO3
    > correlational study
    > no causal relationship identified
    > cant be generalised to the population

    AO3
    > research support for LOC and obedience
    > Atgis meta-analysis of studies between LOC and likeliness to conform
    > higher scored on ELOC were more likely to conform

    AO3
    > research support by Gamson
    > larger groups provide larger social support system
    > makes resisting obedience easier
    > in groups 88% resisted pressure to conform
    View source
  • Social influence

    Outline and evaluate research into minority influence
    AO1
    > consistency - diachronic (group maintains consistent position over time), synchronic (an agreement among members of the minority group), makes opposition think views of minority are real and serious
    > commitment - augmentation principle shows dedication to the cause
    > flexibility - balance between consistency and flexibility, so minority is seen as rigid and unbending, amend views and reach compromise
    > snowball effect - over time majority converted to minority view over time and social change occurs

    AO1
    > Moscovici study
    > aim - how a consistent minority affects the opinions of a larger group
    > procedure - female ptp given eye test, 4ptp and 2cfr groupsshown 36 slides of blue and asked to state the colour, group 1 consistent minority = 36 green, group 2 = green 24: blue 12
    > findings - group 1 = 8.42% ptp answered green, 32% ptp said green at least once, group 2 = 1.25% ptp said green
    > conclusions - minorities can change opinion of majority especially if consistent

    AO3
    > relies on artificial tasks, lack of mundane realism
    > lowers external validity
    > cant be generalised as reality has different social constraints

    AO3
    > Research is culturally biased
    > sample consisted of American females.
    > suggested that females are more likely to conform, and thus the results may be overexaggerated - beta bias
    > cant be generalised to others lowers internal validity

    AO3
    > Real life application
    > suffragettes were minority
    > used consistency of protests even in prison, commitment as they took risks by going on hunger strikes,

    AO3
    > research support for flexibility by Nemeth and Brilmayer
    > They studied a simulated jury situation, cfr judged how much compensation someone got.
    > A confederate who compromised did exert some
    influence on the majority
    View source
  • Social influence

    Outline and evaluate the role of social influence processes in social change
    AO1
    > minority has an ILOC to resist compliance
    > use consistency, commitment and flexibility
    > snowball effect to social change
    > Moscovici study

    AO3
    > social cryptoamnesia - minority ideas assimilated inyo majority viewpoint without majority remembering where the ideas came from
    > augmentation principle
    > snowball effect

    AO3
    > Real life applications
    > Suffragette movement
    > used consistency of protests even in prison, commitment as they took risks by going on hunger strikes,

    AO3
    > Bashir suggests that the social barriers are due to
    stereotypes. On the other hand, there are people who change constantly, in order to conform with
    the majority. This is because it provides some people with comfort, knowing that someone shares
    your opinion. When they don't this can cause unsettlement, and force you to process a change, thus
    showing that social influence is not always effective

    AO3
    > Research is culturally biased
    > sample consisted of American females.
    > suggested that females are more likely to conform, and thus the results may be overexaggerated - beta bias
    > cant be generalised to others in collectivist cultures which lowers internal validity
    View source
  • Attachment

    Discuss infant-caregiver interactions, referring to reciprocity and interactional synchrony.
    AO1
    > attachment - emotional bond between 2 people that endures over time through reciprocity
    > recipocity - mutual interaction and response between 2 people, respond to action with similar action
    > interactional synchrony - mirror what the other is doing, imitate faces, body movements, emotions and behaviours

    AO1
    > Meltzoff and Moore study
    > infants demonstrate interactional synchrony through imitating facial expressions and hand movements
    > innate mechanism as 3 day olds imitate

    AO3
    > Difficlut to test reliability of findings
    > used independent observers to assess vids of infants
    > inter- observer concordance rating of 0.92 increases internal validity
    > support innate and purposeful IS and add credibility

    AO3
    > Unable to replicate findings, low reliability
    > Studies show little evidence of infants imitating caregiver
    > M+M argue it is because their studies were less controlled
    > Suggests flawed methodology, reduces credibility as doesnt follow scientific method, cant check for inaccuracies,

    AO3
    > individual differences between infants
    > Isabella et al found that more strongly attached I-C pairs showed greater interactional synchrony
    > Piaget suggested some infants display pseudo-imitation by repeating behaviour that was previously rewarded

    AO3
    > Research support for interactional synchrony by Tronick
    > Still face experiment - mother interacts with baby then turns around and stops responding to baby
    > leads to infant becoming distressed, crying, pointing to regain mother's attention
    View source
  • Attachment

    Describe and evaluate the stages of attachment as identified by Schaffer and Emerson
    AO1
    > longitudinal study on 60 Glasgow infants
    > studied in own home at monthly intervals for first 18months
    > mothers asked to keep diary of infants response to situations
    > sensitive responsiveness - infant atteached to person that accurately responds to their signals not spend most time with

    AO1
    > Stages of development of attachment
    > asocial (0-6 weeks) similar response to all objects and people
    > indiscriminate attachments (6 weeks - 6 months) more social, more response to human company, comforted by anyone
    > discriminate attachments (7 - 9 months) separation anxiety when put down, prefer one carer, stranger anxiety
    > multiple attachments (10+ months) f

    AO3
    > lacks population validity
    > infants from glasgow and working class families, small sample
    > cant be generalised so limited explanation of attachment
    > larger sample needed

    AO3
    > lacks temporal validity
    > parenting has changed sing study in the 1950s
    > introduction of technology
    > reduces validity and generalisability

    AO3
    > lacks internal validity
    > uses self report daily diary
    > subject to social desirability bias, demand characteristics
    > skew reports to appear more close, findings are unreliable

    AO3
    > high external validity
    > study conducted in infants home so high mundane realism
    > no artificial tasks, so can be generalised to daily life
    > longitudinal study

    AO3
    > Cultural bias
    > Multiple attachments is common in collectivist cultures
    > stage approach is more relevant to individualist cultures
    > cant be generalised outside of individualist cultures, imposed etic
    View source
  • Attachment

    Describe and evaluate the role of the father in attachment
    AO1
    > 75% of infants formed secondary attachment to father by 18 months
    > fathers are more playful, physically active
    > exciting playmate whereas mothers are more conventional and educative - read stories (Geiger)

    AO1
    > 3% of fathers are primary attachment figure
    > Fathers tend to splend less time with infants
    > Men may not be psychologically equipped to form intense attachment as they lack the emotional sensitivity women offer
    > femanine to be sensitive and caring

    AO3
    > Cultural factors
    > men expected to be breadwinners is stereotypical
    > in many societies men look after children and women work
    > in Asia men often work many miles away from home
    > contact with children is limited
    > shif in labour force patterns

    AO3
    > Social factors
    > men in the UK were only given 2 weeks of paternity leave so care of infant fell on the mother
    > Recent changes mean fathers can take equal/all of the leave

    AO3
    > Biological factors
    > men may lack emotional sensitivity cues - Heerman
    > women produce oestrogen - increases emotional response
    > Frodi et al found that men's physiological response was the same as women's to watching a video of a baby crying

    AO3
    > Individual differences
    > MacCallum and Golombok found that children in homosexual or single parent familes were no different to those with 2 heterosexual parents
    > If the father was so crucial to the development of an attachment there should be variations in findings
    > exact role of a father is still disputed
    View source
  • Attachment

    Describe and evaluate animal studies of attachment
    AO1
    > Lorenz Imprinting
    > imprinting - innate readiness to develop strong bond with mother, takes place in specific time period
    > divided 2 goslings into groups, half hatched with him, other half hatched with mother, identified a critical period that imprinting occurs
    > got some goslings to imprint on inanimate objects like a welly
    > imprinting is irreversible, sexual imprinting shown as goslings displayed courtship behaviour to species they imprinted on

    AO3
    > Research support by Guiton
    > study exposed chicks to yellow rubber gloves while being fed for first weeks of life, they imprinted on the gloves
    > male chicks later tried to mate with rubber gloves - support sexual imprinting, increases reliability
    > supports view that animls are not born with idea of who to imprint on

    AO3
    > Cant be generalised to humans
    > infant stages - they do not discriminate at first so wont become attached to the firt moving thing they see
    > increased mobility of goslings, takes humans 8-9 months
    > differences in development of human and animal infants

    AO1
    > Harlow Monkeys
    > baby monkeys split into 2 groups and taken from mother right after birth
    > half got milk from wire mother, other half from cloth mother
    > both groups spent more time with cloth monkey, when scared monkeys ran to cloth mother, explored more if cloth mother present
    > monkeys later had difficulty mating, became bad mothers, killing offspring
    > contact comfort more important than food in attachment
    > early maternal deprivation leads to emotional damage - impact reversed if attachment made before critical period over

    AO3
    > Many cofounding variables
    > head of wire and cloth mother were different, cloth mother looked more like a monkey than the wire mother
    > may find cloth mother less intimidating, more attractive
    > lowers internal validity as causal relationship unknown

    AO3
    > Ethical issues - cost-benefit analysis needed
    > created long-lasting emotional harm to the monkeys
    > monkeys had trouble forming relationships, goslings had trouble mating
    > aided human understanding of attachment, changed adoption policies, benefits society
    View source
  • Attachment

    Describe and evaluate the learning theory explanation of attachment
    AO1
    > born tabula rasa and attachments are a set of learned behaviours established though conditioning
    > Dollard and Miller cupboard love theory says there are 2 twpes of conditioning involved in attachment
    > classical conditioning - learning by associating the NS (primary care giver) with the UC (food) to bring CS pleasure
    > operant conditioning - learning by consequences and reinforcement - food is primary reinforcer for crying so they repeat behaviour - PCG becomes secondary reinforcer
    > PR - crying reinforced by being fed, NR - when fed unpleasant feeling of hunger stops
    > begin to associate PCG with food so forms an attachment - dual process model of attachment

    AO3
    > Contradictory evidence from Harlow study
    > Demonstrated that contact comfort is more important than food in attachment development
    > monkeys formed primary attachment with cloth mother even if they received milk from the wire mother
    > suggests that food as the US has little influence

    AO3
    > Food may not be the primary reinforcer
    > attention and responsiveness given bt PCG is the reward
    > Brazelton showed importance of interactional synchrony and reciprocity in secure formation of attachment
    > These factors are ignored by the learning theory - simplistic

    AO3
    > Research is mostly based on animals
    > behaviourists argue that princliples of learning are the same in animals and humans
    > psychologists argue that this is not humanistic
    > Bowlby argues that attachments are complex and adaptive
    > learning theory is reductionist - too simplistic

    AO3
    > Alternative theory better explains attachment - Bowlby
    > attachment forms for the sake of survival and protection
    > learning theory doesnt explain the strengths of attachment
    > offers a more holistic explanation - less simplistic
    View source
  • Attachment

    Discuss Bowlby's monotropic theory of attachment
    > adaptive and innate - drive to attach
    > social releasers - ellicit response from caregiver
    > sensitive period - attachment must form in first 6-24 months
    > secure base - given by the primary attachment
    > monotropy (heirarchy) - infant has 1 main attachment to PCG
    > secure base - given by the primary attachment
    > continuity hypothesis - attachment strength affects future relationshipstability
    > internal working model - attachment experiences at a young age affect how future experiences are perceived
    > maternal deprivation hypothesis - separation from maternal figure after formation of an attachment negatively affects infant

    AO3
    > Support for internal working model by Hazan and Shaver
    > They found that less secure attachments with PCG as infants lead to less successful relationships
    > secure attachments led to positive love experiences
    > insecure-resistant attachments led to amxious-resistant and obsessive adult relationships
    > insecure-avoidant attachments led to anxious-avoidant relationships where they are uncomfortable close to others
    > supports bowlby's IWM

    AO3
    > Contradicted by temperament hypothesis
    > innate temperament of the infant affects attachment quality
    > easy temperament leads to secure attachment
    > difficult temperament leads to insecure attachments
    > difficult = incessant crying, disobedience,
    > doesnt support that attachments are based on parent responsiveness to social releasers
    > suggests Bowlby's model is reductionist

    AO3
    > Lamb research contradicts monotropy
    > multiple attachments can serve different purposes - all equal
    > important real life implications in role of the father
    > reduce burden on mothers that felt compelled to remainat home to provide child care

    AO3
    > Research support by Harlow for the continuity hypothesis
    > Monkeys from the study grew up to be bad mothers
    > couldnt attach to their children
    > similar study done in humans - mothers that werent securely attached struggled to attach to their child
    View source
  • Attachment

    Describe and evaluate Ainsworth's Strange Situation
    AO1
    > Ainsworth sampleof 106 white middle class american mothers
    > recorded infants 9-18 months reactions to stranger anxiety, separation anxiety, secure base behaviour, reunion behaviour
    > infants placed in 8 situations and behaviour was assedded by trained observers and classified, rated the intensity at regular intervals

    AO1
    > Type B - secure = 66% willing to explore using mother as a secure base, mild separation anxiety
    > Type A - insecure-resistant = 22% willing to explore but no secure base bahaviour, low stranger and separation anxiety
    > Type C - insecure-avoidant = 12% unwilling to explore, no secure base behaviour, high stranger and separation anxiety, seeking and rejecting upon reunion
    > strength of attachment depended on mother's behaviour to infant - caregiver sensitivity hypothesis

    AO3
    > reductionist
    > assumes the mother is always the PCG which isnt the case
    > doesnt take relationships (homosexual) into account
    > research shows that children that grow up without 2 heterosexual parents are the same as those with homosexual or single parents

    AO3
    > low external validity
    > setting is artificial and lacks mundane realism
    > the lab experiment
    > demand characterics lower internal validity

    AO3
    > high reliability
    > inter-observer reliability concordance rate of 0.94
    > conclusions were not subjective, more scientific results

    AO3
    > lacks population validity, is culturally bias
    > study uses white middle class women and is based on Western individualist cultures
    > cant generalise to collectivist cultures as there are differences in upbringing
    > can only be generalised to where the study took place - imposed etic

    AO3
    > Later research for Type D attachment
    > D = insecure-disorganised child shows no consistency in reactions to different situations
    > Supported by Van Ijendoorn's meta-analysis where 15% of infants identified as type D
    > most concerning attachment style so lack of labelling by Ainsworth shows that her study is incomplete
    > need to intervene in type D children
    View source
  • Attachment

    Discuss research on cultural variations in attachment
    AO1
    > culture is the knowledge of a group of people defined by labguage, religion, cuisine, music arts and more
    > cultural variation is the diversity in social practices
    > causes different parenting practices and attachment variation

    AO1
    > meta-analysis of 2000 infants attachments by Van Ijendoorn and Kroonenberg
    > 32 studies of TSS from 8 countries, in all countries secure attachment was most common
    > Western countries such as germany, GB and usa have more insecure avoidant than collectivist eastern cultures like Japan, Israel that have more insecure-resistant
    > individualist cultures place more importance on independent children, collectivist cultures value needs of the social group

    AO3
    > Meta-analysis has population validity, reliable data
    > Uses large sample of data across many countries
    > Holistic approach, poor studies dont affect results much
    > Increases credibility, ability to generalise to the population

    AO3
    > greater variation found in intra-cultural variation
    > 1.5 more variation due to location, social classes, religions, etc within a cultural group
    > over-representation of some cultures - GB had 1 study but USA had 18
    > doesnt represent the whole population so cant be generalised

    AO3
    > Aisworth took an emic concept and imposed it as an etic concept to the wider world - culture bound, ethnocentric
    > imposed etic causes researcher bias
    > willingness to explore seen as independence in western individualist cultures but collectivist cultures dependence may be seen as a secure attachment
    > more indigenous explanations needed to explain attachment

    AO3
    > Determinist theory based on Bowlby's continuity hypothesis
    > Suggests that secure attachments are needed to form healthy adult relationships
    > Secure relationships are not the same across all countries
    > Not everyone with a secure infant attachment has a healthy adult relationship, some people with insecure infant attatchments have healthy adult relationships
    View source
  • Attachment

    Describe and evaluate Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation
    AO1
    > attachment is essential for healthy psychological and emotional development
    > negative consequences of maternal deprivation such as inability to form attachments in the future (IWM), affectionless psychopathy, delinquency, problems with cognitive development
    > deprivation - loss of attachment figure before 2.5 years old for extended period of time without substitute emotional care
    > privation is the failure to ever form an attachment

    AO1
    > Bowlby 44 Juvenile Thieves
    > 88 children group 1 = thief group, group 2 = control
    > two groups matched for age and IQ
    > children and parents were interviewed and tested by a psychiatrist, a psychologist, social worker to focus on their early life experiences
    > findings - 14 children from thief group = affectionless psychopaths, 12 had experienced deprivation by mother
    > control group = only 2 experienced prolonged separation, none classified as affectionless psychopaths

    AO3
    > Support for long term effects
    > Bifulo study on women who had experienced deprivation
    > increased risk of vulnerability and anxiety disorders as 25% later experienced depression or anxiety compared to 15% with no experience of separation

    AO3
    > Real world applications
    > changes to how children are looked after in hospitals
    > Robertson filmed 2 year old distressed and begging to go home, lead to social change, parents allowed to cisit once a week to give emotional support

    AO3
    > individual differences
    > all children arent affected by emotional distuption in same way
    > Barrett - securely attached children may cope well, insecurely attached children become distressed
    > contradicts maternal deprivation hypothesis

    AO3
    > researcher bias in Bowlby's study
    > bowlby may have phrased questions in a way that influenced respondents - leading questions
    > Based his theory on war-orphans
    > cant be generalised to the population
    View source
  • Attachment

    Discuss research related to the effects of institutionalisation
    AO1
    > effects of intitutionalisation:
    > physical underdevelopment
    > poor parenting
    > disinhibited attachment
    > intellectual underfunctioning

    AO1
    > Rutter and Sonuga-Barke studied 165 romanian orphans
    > 111 adopted before age of 2, 54 adopted by age of 4
    > compared to 52 british children adopted by 6 months
    > children tested regularly for physical, social, cognitive development at ages of 4, 6, 11, 15
    > findings - at time of adoption, romanian children were behind british children developmentally, by 4 most of the romanian children adopted by 6 months caught up with british children
    > many children adopted after 6 months showed disinhibited attachment and had difficulties with peer relationships
    > disinhibited attachments - no preference for parents or strangers, seeks comfort and attention from anyone

    AO1
    > Hodges and Tizard
    > followed group of british children from early life to asolescence, placed in institution at less than 4 months
    > 70% not able to care deeply about anyone
    > caretakes were not allowed to form attachments so children experienced privation
    > children restored to families or adopted had problems with peer relationships, more quarrelsome, more likely to be bullies, some showed signs of disinhibited attachment
    > early privation had negative effect on ability to form relationships even after given good emotional care
    > supports bowlby's view that failure to form attachment in the sensitive period leads to irreversible effect on emotional development

    AO3
    > Research suppport by Quinton
    > study on 50 women raised in institutions against control of 50 women raised at home
    > when in their 20s, ex-institutionalised women experienced severe difficulty acting as parents - more of their children spent time in care
    > Harlow research monkeys made bad mothers, killed their kids

    AO3
    > real world application
    > showed the importance of early adoption to ensure no developmental problems
    > today most babies are adopted within first weeks of birth so do not experience deprivation, can attach to adoptive family
    > institutions provide emotional care, positive impact on lives

    AO3
    > Rutter's study has low ecological validity
    > the conditions of the romanian orphans were especially poor
    > orphanages didnt provide any intellectual stimulation, poor physical living conditions, malnourishment, which may have had a large impact on intellectual development - confounding variables
    > cases of abuse frequently reported
    > findings cannot be generalised to all orphanages that treat children better, more holistic approach needed

    AO3
    > Study has high internal validity
    > longitudinal study, no manipulated variables makes findings more reliable, no manipulation of variables means that a causal relationship cannot be identified
    > LeMare and Audet research shows that effects may disappear after sufficient time with suitable quality care
    > a less determinist approach is needed to encourage rehabilitation, encourages adoption of older children, help prevent a self fulfiling prophecy where parents have lower expectations of institutionalised children
    View source
  • Attachment

    Describe and evaluate the influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships, refering to the role of the internal working model
    AO1
    > Bowlby's evolutionary theory of attachment - attachment to PCG helps to form infants internal working model
    > continuity hypothesis - infant attachment affects ability to form and maintain adult relationships
    > if someone is insecurely attaches as an infant, they are likely to experience poor parenting, problems in future relationships and mental helath issues

    AO1
    > Hazan and Shaver love quiz
    > assess influence of early attachment on later attachment by asking ptp to fill out questionaires
    > securely attached people (56%) described love as happy and fulfilling
    > insecure-avoidant people (25%) desribed love as obsessive
    > insecure-resistant people (19%) described love as uneventful and difficult
    > sesults are similar to Ainsworth's strange situation

    AO3
    > Retrospective data is unreliable
    > relies on memory of ptp and self report is subject to social desirability bias
    > confounding variables such as current relationship with parent are not considered
    > lowers internal validity, more holistic approach needed
    > research is correlationals and a causal relationship cannot be established

    AO3
    > Research support from Harlow
    > inability to form attachment early in life (privation) leads to poor parenting but animal research
    > Quinton research on women raised in instituations found that in their 20s they experienced severe difficulty parenting
    > suggests infant attachment important for adult relationships

    AO3
    > Too much emphasis on parent / caregiver in Bowlby's model
    > socially sensitive o blame caregiver for lack of attachment
    > temperament hypothesis suggests innate temperament of the infant affects attachment quality
    > easy temperament leads to secure attachment
    > difficult temperament leads to insecure attachments
    > more idiographic approach needed

    AO3
    > LeMare and Audet research shows that effects may disappear after sufficient time with suitable quality care
    > a less determinist approach is needed to encourage rehabilitation, encourages adoption of older children, help prevent a self fulfiling prophecy where parents have lower expectations of institutionalised children
    > many cases of insecurely attached children growing uo to have strong happy relationships
    > Less determinist approach needed
    View source
  • Memory

    Describe and evaluate research into short and long term memory - coding, capacity and duration
    AO1
    > Short Term Memory
    > coding - acoustic
    > capacity - 5-9 items or 7+- 2
    > duration - 18-30 secs

    AO1
    > Long Term Memory
    > coding - semantic
    > capacity - unlimited
    > duration - potential lifetime

    AO3
    > Baddeley BOTH
    > Found that letter which are acoustically similar (rhyming) are harder to recall from stm
    > Letters which are semantically similar (meaning) are harder to recall from ltm
    > Information is coded acoustically in STM and semantically in LTM
    > low external validity as tasks artificial
    > cant generalise

    AO3
    > Research support by Jacob's Digit span for STM
    > gives list of words for ptp to remember, keeps increasing items in list
    > mean span for digits across all ptp was 9.3 items
    >The mean span for letters was 7.3
    > low mundane realism, low external validity
    > low internal validity as it lacked controls, unreliable results

    AO3
    > Peterson and Peterson retention intervals STM
    > ptp was given a consonant syllable to remember and a 3 digit number
    > made to count backwards from this number until told to stop
    > After 3 seconds average recall was about 80% After 18 seconds it was about 3%
    > stm duration may be about 18 seconds unless we repeat the info over and over (ie verbal rehearsal)
    > artificial tasks so low external validity
    > cant generalise findings

    AO3
    > Bahrick Yearbooks LTM
    > 90% accurate in photo recognition after 15 years70% accurate in photo recognition after 48 years
    > Free recall was less accurate 60% after 15 years for free recall 30% after 48 years for free recall
    > LTM may last up to a lifetime for some material
    > High ecological validity
    > cultural relativism as yearbooks may not be as important in other countries as they are in AmericaSee an expert-written answer!We have an expert-written solution to this problem!
    View source
  • Memory

    Describe and evaluate types of long term memory
    AO1
    > episodic - declarative, experiences, located in hippocampus, involve conscious thought, depend on time and context, difficult to retrieve, easy to forget

    AO1
    > semantic - declarative, located in temporal lobe, general knowledge, don't depend on context, easy to retrieve

    AO1
    > procedural - non-declarative, difficult to explain in words, how to do things, located in the cerebellum and motor context

    AO3
    > Case study support by HM and Clive Wearing
    > CW still able to play piano (had semantic and procedural) but forgot episodic memories
    > adds support to idea of different areas of the brain being involved in LTM - separate stores

    AO3
    > difficult to use evidence from brain-damaged patients
    > the trauma caused may change behaviour
    > individual differences with things such as paying attention affect results
    > case studies of unique individuals cant be generalised to the population
    > key research from MSM uses case studies so theory is less credible

    AO3
    > Brain scans provide support for types of LTM
    > Tulving study - ptp performed tasks while on a PET scan
    > found that semantic memories = temporal, episodic = temporal + hippocampus, procedural = cerebellum + motor cortex
    > increase the reliability of LTM having different stores

    AO3
    > adopts both a nomothetic and idiographic approach
    > support from fMRI scans which produce data that is easy to replicate, objective
    > increases reliability and validity as a scientific method is adopted
    View source
  • Memory

    Describe and evaluate the multi-store model of memory
    AO1
    > Atkinson and Shiffrin's MSM
    > Three stores
    > Sensory memory, Short-term memory, Long-term memory
    > Sensory memory = sub-stores for the 5 senses, unlimited capacity, 0.5s duration, echoic, acoustic, tactile
    > STM - acoustic, 5-9 capacity, 18-30 sec duration
    > LTM - semantic, unlimited capacity, potential lifetime duration

    AO1
    > Environmental stimuli to SM
    > Attention = SM to STM
    > Maintenance rehearsal = keep info in STM
    > Elaborative rehearsal = STM to LTM
    > retrieval = LTM to STM
    > displacement decay = info lost from STM or LTM

    AO3
    > Tulving proposes different types of LTM
    > procedural, semantic, episodic so LTM not a unitary store
    > procedural received unconsciously but semantic received consciously
    > reduced credibility of the MSM

    AO3
    > STM not a unitary store
    > case studies such as KF had poor recall of auditory stimuli but accurate recall for visual stimuli
    > Reduces reliability of MSM, not representative so a less reductionist approach is needed

    AO3
    > Research support for different STM and LTM stores
    > Serial position effect study by Glanzer and Cunitz
    > used interference and list recall to demonstrate the primacy effect (most transferred to LTM) and recency effect (most transferred to STM)

    AO3
    > Baddeley BOTH
    > Found that letter which are acoustically similar (rhyming) are harder to recall from stm
    > Letters which are semantically similar (meaning) are harder to recall from ltm
    > Information is coded acoustically in STM and semantically in LTM
    > low external validity as tasks artificial
    > cant generalise
    View source
  • Memory

    Outline and evaluate the working memory model
    AO1
    > developed by Baddeley and Hitch
    > slave systems
    >
    >

    AO1
    > central executive - controls attention and sends info to the other slave systems, receives info from senses, limited capacity
    > phonological loop - slave systems = articulatory process, phonological store
    > viseospatial sketchpad - slave systems = inner scribe, visual cache
    > episodic buffer - not limited to one sense, binds memories together, visual memories + phonological memories into single episodes stored in the episodic LTM

    AO3
    > Shallice and Warrington's study of KF
    > case studies such as KF had poor recall of auditory stimuli but accurate recall for visual stimuli
    > adds reliability to the WMM as his visual STM unaffected so unitary STM stores

    AO3
    > difficult to use evidence from brain-damaged patients
    > the trauma caused may change behaviour
    > individual differences with things such as paying attention affect results
    > case studies of unique individuals cant be generalised to the population
    > key research from MSM uses case studies so theory is less credible

    AO3
    > Baddeley and Hitch dual performance task
    > ptp must do two acoustic tasks
    > ptp must do visual and acoustic task together
    > decreased performance with two of the same task as confusion caused
    > separate memory stores used
    > supports claim that STM has 2 separate stores (one for verbal info, one for visual info)

    AO3
    > central executive is too vague
    > suggested CE is a unitary store
    > CE may be made of several sub-components or be part of a larger component in the WMM
    > lack of a comprehensive explanation draws doubts on the accuracy of its depiction of working memory
    View source
  • Memory

    Describe and evaluate interference as an explanation for forgetting
    AO1
    > retroactive interferernce
    > new memories block recollection of old memories
    > move to a new class and when you return to your old class you call old friends the name of your new classmates
    > proactive interference
    > old memories block recollection of new memories
    > starting a new job and calling your new coworkers the name of your old coworkers

    AO1
    > RI was demonstrated by McGeoch and McDonald
    > when ptp divided into 6 groups to recall words (synonyms, antonyms, unrelated words, 3 digit numbers, consonant syllables, no new list)
    > those with synonyms experience an average of 3.1 fewer correct items compared to the control group
    > supports that extent of forgetting is larger when the 2 memories are similar

    AO3
    > Research support from Baddeley and Hitch
    > rugby players who had to recall their last game and number of games they had played that season
    > number of games they had played was more important that total time played
    > more games each player had played, the more likely the memories of the newer games would interfere or block recall of older games - RI
    > Shows high external validity

    AO3
    > lists are not personal - no meaning to ptp
    > tasks were artificial and lack mundane realism
    > low ecological validity so cant be generalised
    > in reality we draw links to other memories that have a personal meaning
    > may influence extent of forgetting

    AO3
    > Methodological issues as studies on memory lack mundane realism and reliability
    > lab studies such as these are conducted in short spaces of time
    > memory takes time which isnt shown in the studies

    AO3
    > interference doesnt effect everyday life - doesnt occur often
    > the two memories need to be very similar
    > so interference not as applicable to everyday life
    View source
  • Memory

    Describe and evaluate how retrieval failure due to the absence of cues leads to forgetting
    AO1
    > Tulving encoding specificity principle (ESP) - retrieval failure occurs when cues present at encoding are not present at the time of recall
    > Types of forgetting : context-dependent forgetting - external cues (weather, place, time of day) at time of coding dont match those present at recall
    > Types of forgetting : state-dependent forgetting - internal cues (fatigue, drunk, upset, sick) at time of coding dont match those present at recall

    AO1
    > Godden and Baddeley divers (learn on land / in water)
    > accurate recall was 40% lower in non-matching conditions
    > State dependent forgetting - Carter and Cassaday effect of anti-histamines (have a mild sedarive effect
    > ptp asked to recall words a off/on the drug

    AO3
    > findings lack ecological validity
    > difficult to find conditions that are as polar as water and land
    > questions the existence of context effects
    > not accurate representation of forgetting in day to day life

    AO3
    > Eysenk suggests retrieval failure may be the main reason we forget info from the LTM
    > strictly controlled lab setting (reduce bias and effect of extraneous and confounding variables) increases internal validity
    > high reliability of results conducted using a scientific method

    AO3
    > lists are not personal - no meaning to ptp
    > tasks were artificial and lack mundane realism
    > low ecological validity so cant be generalised
    > in reality we draw links to other memories that have a personal meaning
    > may influence extent of forgetting

    AO3
    > Research support from Abernethy student study
    > group of students tested in variations of room and instructor
    > those tested in same room and instructor performed best as familiar surroundings acted as cues for memory recall
    > real world applications for students preparing for exams, revise in room you will take exams
    View source
  • Memory

    Discuss research on the effect of misleading information on eyewitness testimony
    AO1
    > leading questions Loftus and Palmer
    > ptp watched a film of a car crash and gave speed estimates
    > diffferent groups asked leading question of how fast were the cars going when they (smashed / collided / bumped / hit / contacted) each other
    > smashed = speed estimate 8.7 mph higher than contacted
    > leading questions lead to response bias as phrasing leads ptp to feel there is a right answer
    > smashed = more likely to report seeing glass when asked 2 weeks later compared to contacted group
    > study supports substitution explanation - leading questions change eyewitness memory

    AO1
    > post event discussion by Gabbert
    > matched pairs design showed ptps crime scene clip with different details for each member
    > after engaging in discussion, ptp completed a test of recall
    > 71% inaccuracy rates with discussion compared to 0% control
    > memory conformity, pick up details bc we think we are wrong / other person is right.

    AO3
    > demand characteristics
    > ptp want to be helpsull so use social desirability bias to give answer that seems the most helpful / expected by researcher
    > leads to lower internal validity and reliability of data collected
    > can accurately generalised, lower chance of results being replicated

    AO3
    > artificial tasks dont stimulate stress of an actual crime
    > lack of mundare realism in methodology
    > presence of anxiety in reality may have a positive or negative effect on memory
    > lowers ecological validity so cant be generalised

    AO3
    > individual differences not accounted for
    > factors such as age my affect recall
    > own age bias as more likely to recall others from our own age group with a higher degree of accuracy
    > frequent use of young targets means elderly ptp are unrepresented
    > key methodological criticism

    AO3
    > real world applications
    > in investigations leading questions by police can affect recall
    > improving understanding of how leading questions affect memory can make a difference in legal system
    > less innocent people being convicted due to false eyewitness memory
    View source
  • Memory

    Discuss the effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony
    AO1
    > anxiety = physiological response to external pressures characterised by increased hert rate, sweat production etc
    > negative effect - Johnson and Scott
    > high-anxiety (HA) = ptp heard an argument, smashing glass, man walk out with bloody knife
    > low anxiety = man walked out with a greasy pen
    > asked to identify man HA = 16% lower rates of accurate recall
    > explained by tunnel theory and weapon focus effect, attention drawan to source of anxiety

    AO1
    > positive effect - Yuille and Cutshall
    > 13 eyewitnesses 5 months after real-life shooting in canada
    > eyewitness accuracy was still high with an 11% higher recall from those that ranked anxiety as high
    > supports idea that high anxiety = attention to external cues through fight-or-flight response
    > evolutionary advantage higher chance of survival and escape

    AO3
    > Yerkes-Dodson law is a better explanation
    > an inverted-U between increasing arousal and performance
    > with ewt moderate arousal gives best performance
    > may be an over-simplification as it doesnt take into account multiple factors such as cognitive, behavioural, emotional etc
    > decreases application

    AO3
    > ethical issues
    > Yuille and Cutshall forcing ptp to recall traumatic experiences
    > lack of protection from psychological harm
    > cost-benefit analysis needed to compare ethical costs with benefit of knowledge of effects of anxiety

    AO3
    > Yulle and Cutshall is high in ecological validity
    > use of a case study is not artificial so no demand characteristics or social desirability bias
    > uncontrolled extraneous variables - cant control post-event discussions that reduce accuracy of EWT - Gabbert
    > lacks reliability

    AO3
    > weapon focus tests for effect of surprise rather than anxiety
    > Pickel study with theif in hairdresser carrying scissors (high threat, low surprise), handgun (high threat, high surprise), wallet (low threat, low surprise), raw chicken (low threat, high surprise)
    > identification least accurate in high surprise condition not high threat
    > resuces credibility of Johnson and Scott study
    View source
  • Memory

    Discuss the use of the cognitive interview as a means of improving the accuracy of memory
    AO1
    > CI is a police technique of interviewing witnesses to a crime
    > encourages them to recreate context of the crime
    > memory is made up of a network of associations
    > memories accessed using multiple retrieval stratergies

    AO1
    > mental reinstatement of context - prevents context-dependent forgetting, reminds ptp of external and internal cues
    > report everything - unimportant details may trigger recall of larger events, act as cues
    > change order - reduces ability of eyewitness to lie, reduces impact of schemas on perception of event
    > change perspective - prevents eyewitness account being affected by their schemas or pre-conceived perceptions of crimes

    AO3
    > CI increaases recall pf correct info by 81% and recall of incorrect info by 61%
    > appears counterintuitive
    > decreases reliability of the CI and info from eyewitnesses

    AO3
    > little practical value
    > too time-consuming and requiring specialist skills
    > lack of time for training may explain lack of use of CI

    AO3
    > comparisons are difficult
    > effectiveness of CI cant be accurately evaluated as it is a collection of techniques
    > Different police stations use different versions of the CI - some use everything except change perspective
    > cant establish overlal effectiveness

    AO3
    > parts of the CI are useful - context reinstatement and report everything
    > even if police cant train for all 4 steps, gradual changes from standard police interview can increase accuracy and reliability of eyewitness testimony
    View source
  • Psychopathology

    Describe and evaluate definitions of abnormality
    AO1
    > Statistical infrequency
    > mean value, standard deviations, normal distribution
    > if frequency more than 2 sd away from mean it is abnormal

    AO3
    > objective data is used to calcultate standard deviations
    > makes definition more scientific, empirical
    > no opinions or bias due to mathematical nature

    AO3
    > some abnormal behaviours are actually desirable such as high IQ
    > cultural relativism
    > some behaviour such as schizophrenia's claiming to hear voices are more common in some cultures than others


    AO1
    > Deviation from social norms
    > straying away from social norms of a culture
    > general norms apply universally, culture-specific norms dont
    > societal rules can be explicit or implicit

    AO3
    > cultural relativism
    > what is socially acceptable in some cultures will not be in others
    > large variation from culture to culture leads to discrimination
    > some behaviour such as schizophrenic's claiming to hear voices is abnormal is some cultures but encouraged in others

    AO3
    > distinguished between desirable and undesirable behaviour
    > this is better than the SI method
    > takes into account effect behaviour has on others
    > abrormal behaviour is one that damages others


    AO1
    > Failure to function adequately
    > proposed by Rosenhan and Seligman
    > persons mental state is preventing them from leading a normal life
    > criteria - personal distress, maladaptive behaviour, irrationality and incomprehensibility, unpredictability and loss of control, observer discomfort, violation of moral standards

    AO3
    > recognises the subjective experience of the patient
    > diagnosis based on patients self-reported symptoms and psychiatrists objective opinion
    > lead to more accurate diagnosis of mental health

    AO3
    > cultural relativism
    > what is socially acceptable in some cultures will not be in others
    > likely to have differebt diagnosis in different cultures bc standard of one culture (usually western) used to judge others
    > model has limited application


    AO1
    > Deviation from ideal mental health
    > proposed by Jahoda
    > define mental illness by looking at the absence of signs of mental health
    > criteria include positive self attitude, personal growth and self actualisation, intergration (cope with stressful situations), autonomy, accurate perception of reality, mastery of environment (ability to love, adjust to new situations, problem solve)

    AO3
    > Unrealisic criteria
    > Most individuals wont fulfil all criteria all the time
    > falsely assume someone shows signs of psychopathology
    > how many need to be lacking for one to be judged abnormal

    AO3
    > positive apporach
    > focuses on the positives (desirable) rather than the negatives
    > influence on humanistic approaches - positive psychology
    View source
  • Psychopathology

    Describe the characteristics of phobias, depression and ocd
    AO1
    > Phobias - 2.6%
    > Emotional - marked and persistent fear
    > Cognitive - irrational beliefs about phobic object, recognition of fear as unreasonable and excessive, selective attention
    > Behavioural - avoidance, fight/fight/freeze
    > types of phobias - specific, social, agoraphobia

    AO1
    > Depression - 2.6%
    > Emotional - sadness, loss of interest and pleasure, anger
    > Cognitive - negative and irrational thoughts, negative view of the world, negative self-concept, guilt, feeling worthless
    > Behavioural - shift in activity level, change in sleep, change in eating habits

    AO1
    > OCD - 1.3%
    > Emotional - disgust, embarassment, shame, anxiety, distress
    > Cognitive - obsessive thoughts, insight into excessive anxiety
    > Behavioural - compulsive behaviour, avoidance
    View source
  • Psychopathology

    Describe and evaluate the behavioural approach to explaining phobias
    AO1
    > Classical conditioning of Little Albert = aquisition of phobia
    > behaviourist approach = all behaviours (phobias) are learnt
    > NS (eg spider) paired with an UCS (eg fright) leading to an UCR (fear)
    > If pairing is significant enough or repeated over time, the NS becomes a CS and is associated with the CR of (fear of spiders)

    AO1
    > Operant conditioning = maintainance of phobia
    > positive reinforcement of concern from friends/family/ attention
    > negative reinforcement of removing the unpleasant outcome by avoidance (of place phobic stimulus may be eg. campsite)
    > increases likelihood of repetition, reinforces phobia

    AO3
    > Research support by study on Little Albert by Watson
    > NS = white rat, UCS = loud noise, UCR = fear, CS = white rat, CR = fear
    > Little Albert was ine individual, cant generalise findings
    > not longitudinal so we dont know if extinction of phobais occured

    AO3
    > Alternative Social Learning Theory explanation - Sue
    > Many people with a phobia have never had a traumatic event with the phobic stimulus
    > Dual-process model cant be used as a nomothetic approach
    > Arachnophobics cited SLT modelling rather than a traumatic experience
    > more idiographic approach needed as different phobias have different sources

    AO3
    > Research support for SLT
    > model acted in pain each time a buzzer sounded
    > ptp observes this showed an emotional reaction to the buzzer
    > an aquired fear response shows that modelling behaviour of others can lead to an acquisition of phobias- social learning theory supports acquisition of phobias

    AO3
    > Alternative evolutionary explanation - Seligman
    > alternative explanation for why people without traumatic experience have phobias is biological preparedness
    > biologically programmed to aquire fears in response to life-threatening stimuli
    > suggests a more holistic approach needed to explain phobias, acknowlege biological and environemtenal factors
    View source
  • Psychopathology

    Describe and evaluate the behavioural approach to treating phobias
    AO1
    > Behavioural approach to treatment suggests what wass learned can be unlearned
    > Systematic Desensitisation
    > counterconditioning - reduces anxiety as they become desensitised
    > reciprocal inhibition - state of fear and relaxation cannot coexist, once state of fear removed,patient feels state of relaxation
    > relaxation technques breathng focus, visualising a peaceful scene) taught by therapist
    > desensitisation heirarchy gradually introduces patient to feared stimulus
    > in vitro uses pictures / videos of phobic stimulus
    > practices relaxation techniques at each stage until the anxiety diminishes

    AO1
    > Flooding
    > expose patient to phobic object directly
    > At first patient will be in a state of extreme anxiety and panic but eventually exhaustion sets in and anxiety levels decrease
    > Normally patient would try to avoid the situation but in flooding they are forced to confront their fear
    > they find they have come to no harm when panic subsides

    AO3
    > individual differences
    > some people have different phobias that may not be suitable for SD
    > Ohman - SD ineffective for phobias that have an evolutionary survival basis
    > flooding is faster than SD or CBT
    > preferred therapy for people that are busy
    > not for people with underlying health conditions
    > flooding impractical in some situations so in vitro methods used
    > idiographic approach needed

    AO3
    > research support
    > McGrath - 75% of patients responded to SD
    > Comer - in vivo techniques more effective than in vitro
    > adds credibility to the behavioural explanation and SD as a treatment for phobias

    AO3
    > behavioural therapies are faster, cheaper and easier to administer
    > Humphrey - SD can be self-administered as effectively as with a therapist guided therapy
    > makes the therapy easily accessible for everyone

    AO3
    > symptom substitution means behavioural therapies dont work as well with some phobias
    > after symptoms are removed, the cause still remains so symptoms may resurface
    > seen in case of Little Hans and his fear of horses overcome when he faced the true source of his phobia - envy of his father
    > shows importance of trating underlying causes not just symptoms so more eclectic and holistic approach needed
    View source
  • Psychopathology

    Describe and evaluate the cognitive apprach to explaining depression
    AO1
    > cognitive approach assumes depression is the result of faulty / irrational thinking
    > Ellis' ABC model
    > A = activating event
    > B = beliefs - way we think about event (rational / irrational)
    > C = consequences
    > irrational beliefs caused by musturbatory thinking
    >I must be approved of
    > I must do well, or I am worthless
    > the world must give me happiness, or I will die

    AO1
    > Beck's negative triad
    > in early life we develop negative schemas that could cause a cognitive bias
    > Negative schema lead to negative view of self, negative view of the world, negative view of the future
    > leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy

    AO3
    > real world applications
    > given rise to cbt (an effective therapy for depression),
    > best treatment for depression when used with drug treatments- Cuijpers (2013)
    > cbt uselfulness supports effectiveness of cognitive approach

    AO3
    > research support by Hammen and Krantz
    > depressed ptp made more errors in logic when asked to interpret written mater
    > Bates - depressed participants given begative automatic thought statements bacame more and more depressed
    > establishes correlation not causation, negative thinking may develop due to depression

    AO3
    > doesnt explain biological factors
    > people with depression have low serotonin levels
    > biological approarch- genes and neurotransmitters may cause depression
    > Zhang - gene for low serotonin levels 10 times more common in depressed people
    > success for drug treatments suggests neurotransmitters play a role, diathesis-stress model
    > genetic vulnerability for depression, needs a more holistic approach

    AO3
    > considered patient blaming
    > suggests patient is at fault rather than the situation they are in
    > may worsen their state of depression
    > gives client power, may overlook situational factors
    View source
  • Psychopathology

    Describe and evaluate the cognitive approach to treating depression
    AO1
    > rational emotional behavioural therapy (REBT)
    > if depression caused by faulty cognition the changing the way the patient thinks, depression can be alleviated
    > D = disputing irrational thoughts
    > Logical = does this belief make sense?
    > Empirical = is this belief accurate?
    > Pragmatic = how will this belief help me?
    > E = effects of disputing
    > F = new feelings produced

    AO1
    > Cognitive behavioural therapy
    > Homework tasks
    > monitor automatic maladaptive thoughts
    > Behavioural activation by engaging in endorphin releasing activities such as physical exercise
    > Unconditional positive regard

    AO3
    > research support
    > 90% success rate for rebt takinng an average of 27 sessions to complete the treatment
    > but therapist competence accounts for variations in cbt outcome and willingness of patient to participate
    > REBT is effective but other factors relating to patient and therapis may affect results
    > more ideographic approach needed

    AO3
    > individual differences affect effectiveness
    > cbt less suitable for people with higher levels of irrational beliefs that are rigid and resistant to change - Elkin
    > less suitable for high levels of stress- Simons
    > more holistic approach needed- therapists should assess situational factors

    AO3
    > alternative treatments,
    > antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitoers (SSRIs)
    > less effort from client, cheap,
    > some patients may not be able to focus during cbt, drug treatment given before cbt to remove some symptoms
    > ecclecctic apporach or better long and short term prognosis
    > drugs for symptom presentation then challenge irrational beliefs with cbt

    AO3
    > support for behavioural activation by babyak
    > 156 volunteers with depression were randomly assigned four-month course of aerobic exercise, drug treatment or combination
    > clients all showed significant improvement at the end of the 4 months
    > 6 months later exercise groups had lower relapse rates than the medication group
    > change in behaviour is beneficial for treating depression
    View source
  • Psychopathology

    Describe and evaluate the biological approach to explaining OCD
    AO1
    > Genetic explanations
    > OCD is a polygenetic disorder
    > COMT gene (regulates production of dopamine) more common in people with OCD, leads to higher levels of dopamine, compulsions needed to create dopamine boost and same sense of reward
    > SERT gene (lower levels of serotonin) found in OCD = high anxiety levels and exhibit obsessive thoughts

    AO1
    > Neural explanations
    > caudate nucleus doesnt surpress signals from the orbitofrontal cortex so signals sent to the hypothalamus about things that are worrying
    > abnormal level of neurotransmitters
    > abnormal brain circuits

    AO3
    > research support by Nestadt
    > identified 80 ptp with OCD in their first degree relatives, compared to 78 control
    > ptp with fdr with OCD 5x more likely to develop OCD
    > meta-analysis of twins = 68% for MZ, 31% for DZ
    > high concordance rates suggest genetics play a role, adds reliability

    AO3
    > Reductionist
    > Ignores environmental factors
    > Twin studies are not 100% which suggests that external factors play a role as MZ twins have same genotype
    > a more holistic approach is needed as other extraneous variables could be affecting results
    > an idiographic approach is needed

    AO3
    > Empirical evidence from PET scans - Menzies
    > use of MRI scans to produce images of brain activity in OCD patients and fdr without OCD had reduced grey matter in key regions of the brain compared to control group
    > objective and empirical data is scientific, reliable data adds validity to theory
    > cant assume causal link, reduces generalisability

    AO3
    > Dual-model theory
    > classical conditioning - NS is associated with UCR of anxiety
    > stimulus becomes conditioned so when presented to the person with OCD they experience high anxiety
    > association maintained by operant conditioning - avoiding stimulus = NR
    > obsession formed as compulsive behaviours reduce anxiety
    > more idiographic approach is needed, better to explain and treat underlying cause of OCD
    View source
  • Psychopathology

    Describe and evaluate the biological apprach to treating OCD
    AO1
    > SSRIs
    > uses serotonin
    > side effects :

    AO1
    > Tricyclics
    > uses noradrenaline
    > side effects :

    AO1
    > Benzodiazepines
    > uses GABA
    > side effects : addictive

    AO3
    > serious side effects
    > side effects such as nausea, insomnia and weight gain may discourage people from taking meds
    > many patients relapse in a few weeks once meds stopped
    > although drugs widely used, CBT should be tried first

    AO3
    > increased treatment = less sick days
    > cheap to produce and administer vs psychological treatments such as CBT
    > patient can lead a normal life
    > decreased spending costs for the NHS
    > money can be directed else where
    > publication bias - Turner claims bias towards positive outcome of antidepressants, exaggerating benefits

    AO3
    > cost effective and non-disruptive
    > increased effectiveness = increased productivity of the workforce, less hospitalistion
    > more people paying taxes which has positive impact on economy
    > more jobs provided for medication manufacture
    > helps organisations like the NHS

    AO3
    > drugs are only palliative
    > only treat symptoms of OCD, not a cure for underlying causes
    > if patient stops meds OCD symptoms return
    > revolving door phenomenon - patients discharged and readmitted to hospital
    > reduced reliability
    View source