Unit 1

• The Social Sciences:

  • The disciplines that use research and analysis (statistics, experiments, looking at documents) to examine human behaviour
  • Help us understand (ex: doctors studying the medical causes of stress)
  • Resolve issues (ex: the Death Penalty, legal punishment for crimes)
  • Sociology: The science of society
  • Psychology: The science of the mind
  • Anthropology: The science of human origins and cultures
• Sociology:

  • Looks for patterns in the way humans behave in groups -- takes what appears to be of a personal nature (ex: suicide) and demonstrates how it relates to larger issues (ex: alienation)
• Psychology:

  • Looks at how the mind gives meaning to what it receives from most of the senses -- emphasizes the individual psyche
• Anthropology:

  • Studies the cultures and beliefs of past societies -- archaeology is sometimes used
• History of Anthropology:

  • 15th Century - Age of Discovery
  • Explorers, adventurers and missionaries discuss the habits and customs of people in conquered lands -- unscientific, biased approach
  • Beginning of "Scientific" Anthropology
  • Philosophers like David Hume and John Locke insisted that observation was the only way to make valid conclusions about the world
  • Later -- Darwin -- evolution becomes central to anthropology
• History of Psychology:

  • Ancient China, India and Greece
  • Much ancient philosophy bordered on psychology
  • 19th Century Germany
  • Experimental research first becomes systematic, things like reaction time, attention span, perception and the five senses are studied
• Sociology:

  • 18th Century England - Industrial Revolution
  • Economy radically changed from a farming-based small-scale production model to a large-scale, mechanized manufacturing one
  • People had to leave their homes in rural areas and move to the cities to get jobs
  • With this came major social problems (ex: disease, malnutrition, crime, unemployment)
  • To deal with these new problems, society had to be understood
  • These new ideas helped lead to several revolutions (ex: American 1775, French 1789)
• Fields of Anthropology:

  • Cultural Anthropology
  • Social Anthropology
  • Physical Anthropology
• Cultural Anthropology:

  Examines and compares the cultures of living people.
• Social Anthropology:

  Focuses on the social organizations of living people.
• Physical Anthropology:

  Examines the evolution of humankind over millions of years and compares the genetic characteristics of humans with those of biologically similar animals such as apes and chimpanzees.
• Important Concepts for Anthropologists:

  • Ethnographic Studies
  • Myths
  • Kinship
  • The Ideal of the "Family"
• Ethnographic Studies:

  Examine the culture and traditions of distinct peoples and how these change over time.
• Myths:

  Include stories that explain the origins of the world and human beings. Some people believe these and others don't; either way, they tell what's important to the society, and what behaviour is acceptable and unacceptable.
• Kinship:

  The idea that members of a social group define themselves as descended from common ancestors.
• The Ideal of the "Family":

  Very different in different areas and has drastically changed over the years in some places.

  Examples:

  • 19th Century China
  • The Tikopia of the South Pacific
  • Canada
• Fields of Psychology:

  • Psychoanalysis
  • Behaviourism
• Psychanalysis:

  • Tries to help patients who suffer from severe anxieties and tensions by analyzing the root causes of these, usually in childhood, by probing their innermost experiences (thoughts, feelings, emotions, fantasies, etc.)
  • Unconscious vs. conscious mind -- believes unconscious has more control of our personality and behaviour
  • Libido (sex drive) is the primary human motivation
  • Example of a psychoanalyst: Sigmund Freud
• Behaviourism:

  • Developed as a reaction to Psychoanalysis -- believed Psychology should only study what can be observed -- the mind cannot be observed but behaviour can
  • Behaviourists believe that psychologists can predict, control or modify human behaviour by identifying the factors that motivate it in the first place
  • Focuses on behaviour modification (ex: anger management)
  • Example of a behaviourist: B.F. Skinner
• Fields of Sociology:

  • Functionalism
  • The Conflict School
  • Symbolic Interactionism
• Functionalism:

  • Description: Just as systems in the human body perform a function, each institution (religion, media, law, family, education) in society has a job to do
  • Belief about how society should be studied: Look for large-scale patterns in institutions
  • Ex: Emile Durkheim
• The Conflict School:

  • Description: Class struggle is the most important aspect of society -- the "elite" dominate others in an unfair system ("keep the rich rich and the poor poor")
  • Belief about how society should be studied: Study economic and social patterns
  • Ex: Karl Marx
• Symbolic Interactionism:

  • Description: The most significant aspect of society is individual interaction, the way we communicate and the "symbols" we use
  • Belief about how society should be studied: Small-scale interactions between individuals
  • Ex: Max Weber
• Validity:

  The degree to which a study accurately measures what it is supposed to.

  Reliability:

  The degree to which a study's results can be replicated.
• The Inquiry Process:

  1. Identify a problem or question
  2. Develop a hypothesis
  3. Gather data
  4. Analyze the data
  5. Draw conclusions
• Identify a Problem or Question:

  • Keep the question limited in scope -- don't try to discover too much in one study, your results will be more valid and reliable if you focus on a specific area
• Develop a Hypothesis:

  • An educated guess -- this will show what will be tested and which research method to use
  • It does not reflect positively or negatively if your thesis is disproven -- all that matters is that you have done an effective study (valid and reliable) that helps people understand more about the topic
• Gather Data:

  • Decide on the best method of research to test your hypothesis and explore the problem
  • Examples of research methods: case studies, sample surveys, experiments, interviews, observation, participant observation
• Analyze the Data:

  • Organize and interpret the information
• Draw Conclusions:

  • Report if the hypothesis has been supported or not -- discuss exactly what has been learned by the study
• Humans:

  • Unusual animals with a higher thinking capacity
  • Social and can deduce between moral and immoral while at the same time possessing the ability to better their lives
• Animals:

  • Living organisms which possess the characteristics of respiration, gaseous exchange, reproduction and nutrition, while at the same time having the ability to respond to changes in the environment
• Similarities between Humans and Animals:

  1. We share between 98.6 and 99% of our DNA with gorillas
  2. Ability to express shared attitudes and practices and pass them to the next generation
  3. Express a wide spectrum of emotions owing to various events and experiences
  4. Bipedalism and opposable thumbs
  5. Distinct ways of communicating with peers
  6. Capacity to remember
  7. Making and using tools
• "Big Three" Research Methods:

  1. Survey Research
  2. Interviews
  3. Observations
• Survey Research:

  • Researchers ask questions of a fairly limited number of individuals who represent a larger group, then draw conclusions about that larger group
  • A statistical analysis is done to make sure the sample size is significant enough to generalize the information
  • It is also key to use a variety of people (age, income level, gender, ethnicity, etc.) to get valid results
  • Ex: Voting patterns and preferences
• Interviews:

  • Involves an interviewer and a subject
  • Done when detailed information and explanations are required
  • Ex: Life experiences of the elderly
• Observation:

  • Structured and Unstructured Observation: Watching people for actions and reactions
  • Ex: Park bench
  • Participant Observation: Observation by participation
  • The debate: "Should you tell them?" ("real" unbiased information vs. unethical)
  • Ex: Hookers, rounders, desk clerks
• Common Beliefs About the Origin of Life on Earth:

  • Creation
  • Evolution
  • Intervention
• Creation:

  Life was created by an act of God in this form; reject evolution.
• Evolution:

  Life was created through evolution, the constant change of life forms.