Bio

• What is tertiary structure?

  The 3D folding of a polypeptide chain
• What is secondary structure?

  The folding patterns of a protein, including either alpha helix or beta sheets.
• What is primary structure?

  A sequence of a chain of amino acids
• What is quaternary structure?

  Is a protein consisting of more then one amino acid chain
• What is transcription?


  The process of converting DNA into RNA
• What is initiation in transcription?

  occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase binds to a region of a gene called the promoter
• What is elongation In transcription?

  process which an RNA chain complementary to the template strand of DNA is synthesized as the RNA polymerase moves along DNA
• What is termination in transcription?

  is the ending of transcription, and occurs when RNA polymerase crosses a stop (termination) sequence in the gene. the mRNA strand is complete and detaches from the DNA
• What is translation?

  Process which cells make proteins using the genetic Information carried in mRNA
• What is initiation in translation?

  Ribosomal subunits bind to the mRNA
• What is elongation in translation?

  The ribosome moves along the mRNA molecule linking amino acids and forming a polypeptide chain
• What is termination in translation?

  the ribosomes reaches a stop codon which terminated protein synthesis and releases the ribosome
• What are the organelles associated with the exportation of a cell??

  Golgi apparatus, vesicles and rough endoplasmic reticulum
• the protein secretory pathway

  explores the role of the rough endoplasmic reticulum golgi apparatus and vesicles in the export of proteins from a cell via the protein secretory pathway.
• biotechnical applications of biochemical pathways what is it?


  -Sugar-containing raw materials, including sugary, starchy, lignocellulosic, and industrial wastes, can be used as fermentation substrates for biofuel production, with sugar-containing materials requiring less costly pre-treatment.
• Anaerobic fermentation of biomass and applications


  Deconstruction- Sugar-containing raw materials, such as starchy, lignocellulosic, and industrial wastes, can be utilized as fermentation substrates for biofuel production, requiring less costly pre-treatment.
• Anaerobic fermentation


  Fermentation of biomass in the absence of oxygen
• Biomass and applications


  • Sugar-containing raw materials (starchy, lignocellulosic, industrial wastes) can be utilized as fermentation substrates for biofuel production
  • Requires less costly pre-treatment
• Deconstruction


  1. Sugar-containing raw materials are utilized as fermentation substrates

  2. Enzymes break down biomass, converting starch and cellulose into glucose and sugars

  3. Hydrolysis aids in breaking down polysaccharides, aided by water
• Ethanol fermentation


  1. Involves yeast in anaerobic fermentation of sugars

  2. Produces significant ethanol

  3. Ethanol diffuses out of yeast cells and is used for biofuel production
• Purification and dehydration


  1. Ethanol is distilled via the removal of water

  2. Converting it into a useable form called biofuel

  3. The biofuel is then purified and is ready to be used as liquid fuel
• fermentation of forest and industrial residues 


  Sugar-containing raw materials, including sugary, starchy, lignocellulosic, and industrial wastes, can be used as fermentation substrates for biofuel production, with sugar-containing materials requiring less costly pre-treatment.
• fermentation of forest and industrial residues 


   The goals of an effective pre-treatment process are:

   1. to form sugars directly or subsequently by hydrolysis

   2. to avoid loss and/or degradation of sugars formed 

  3. to limit formation of inhibitory products 

  4. to reduce the energy demands

   5. to minimise costs
• wood and agricultural products 


  Most biomass used today comes from grown energy sources like wood and agricultural waste, which are used to generate electricity. Papermills and sawmills use waste products to generate steam and electricity but need additional fossil fuels.
• burning of garbage waste


  Burning garbage converts household waste into energy, with one kilogram containing as much heat energy as 220 kilograms of coal. Waste-to-energy plants generate electricity using combustible garbage, while landfills decompose waste through bacteria and fungi.
• advantages of biofuels over traditional fossil fuels 


  Biomass is readily available, renewable, and often carbon neutral, unlike fossil fuels. It can be collected from plants, animals, or agricultural wastes, and has no net carbon dioxide output compared to fossil fuel combustion.