APRE - Themes 4,5,6

• Periodization of the Roman period in the Low Countries

  • Early Roman (19/15/12 BCE - 70 CE)
  • Middle Roman (70 - 270/293 CE)
  • Late Roman (293 - 450/480 CE)
• Starting dates for the Roman period in different areas

  • Low Countries = 53/51 BCE
  • England = 43 BCE
  • France/Belgium/Luxembourg = 55 BCE
• Arguments for a Caesarian start

  • no lasting structures, oppida as sources, Bibracte battle, Kessel-Lith artifacts, Celtic coinage hoard
• Arguments for an Augustan start

  • Tres Galliae provinces, Tiel-region evidence
• Important forts along the Lippe for archaeologists

  • Haltern camp (7 BCE-9 CE), Oberaden (12-11 BCE)
• Indirect consequences of the Varus defeat:

  • From offensive to defensive - Rhine accepted as border
• Difference in status and size between legions and other units

  • Legions (Roman citizens, 5000), Auxiliary units (non-citizens, 500), Cohors (infantry, 500), Ala (cavalry unit, 500), Fleet (classis), Vexillartio (detachment for specific tasks)
• Units in Roman military

  • Legion
  • Auxiliary units
  • Cohors (infantry)
  • Ala (calvary unit)
  • Fleet
  • Vexillartio
• 1 contubernium = 8 soldiers, 10 contuberniae = 1 centuria (80 soldiers), 6 centuriae = 1 cohors (480 soldiers), 1 legion = first cohort of 10 centuriae + 9 cohorts of 6 centuriae = 5120 soldiers
• Limes


  Latin: frontier/borderzone, Archaeological: all military infrastructure along the border of the Roman empire including fortifications, watch towers, embankment and wall, limes road, connected infrastructure like dams, dikes, canals, cities
• Lower Rhine limes founded in 40 CE, initial function was a military structure for defence against Germanic people, later function was the first origin guarded transportation infrastructure
• Valkenburg castellum exceptional for evidence of a castellum with 70% excavated, recently a very large camp was found at Valkenburg
• Main elements of an idealised Roman castellum include praetentura, retentura, staff headquarters, commander’s house, grain storage, ditches, defensive wall, roads, entrances
• Lower Rhine castella turned 90 degrees along the Rhine, wood preserved well, watch towers strategically placed along the river for communication
• Batavian revolt during the Year of the four emperors, archaeological proof includes burnt layers at military posts, cities, bronze kettle, and plaque
• Consequences of the revolt for local Batavian communities: Vespasian wins, Flavian dynasty starts, 10th legion stationed at Nijmegen, new cities in river plains, army camps rebuilt, Gallic elite loses land, new elite families, temporary oppression for Batavians in Dutch river area
• Monthy Python clip

  Connects to the sentence in the introduction of Roymans, Derks & Heeren (2020) that argues for a perspective on rural societies that allocates more space to the exploitative and repressive aspects of Roman rule
• Roymans, Derks & Heeren (2020) aim to evaluate the rural archaeology of the “romanisation” of provinces in Germania inferior by discussing the power instability introduced by Roman rule, contrasting the traditional narrative of cultural assimilation with the reality of resistance.
• The arrival of the Roman armies caused consequences directly related to mass violence, ethnic reorganisation, and the exploitation of ethnic soldiers on local communities.
• Historical sources for studying the consequences of colonialism

  • Caesar’s De Bello Gallico, written sources describing the formative phase of the Germani, Belgae, Celtae (battle near river Meuse/Rhine)
• Archaeological sources for studying the consequences of colonialism

  • Personal ornaments, handmade pottery, indigenous house architecture, dental remains of domestic animals (strontium isotope studies), metal ornaments (chemical analysis)
• Approximate foundation period of the earliest Roman cities in the Northwest is 16-10 BCE
• Formal civitates with caput were essential for the operation of the Roman empire (political, economic, administration, culture, and trade)
• Oppida like the oppidum Batavorum are completely new but they do not mean that there was an oppidum structure necessarily, therefore different to the Gallic oppida of the Late Iron Age
• Main functions of the Roman town include being government hubs, forum for justice/legislation and trade/market, emperor cult/temple as a religious centre, craft production areas for pottery, metal, glass, and food, amphitheatre, theatre, and bathhouse for games and leisure, and elite residences
• Municipium cities receive legal status, inhabitants have Roman citizenship, city council with wealthy landowners (e.g., Nijmegen)
• Colonia cities are newly founded under Roman law, for veterans of the Roman legions, self-governing and owners of the land, and later existing cities receive the title of colonia
• Cities in the province of Lower Germany with municipium status include Voorburg (Forum Hadriani - 122 CE => Municipium Aelium Cananef. - 151 BCE) and Nijmegen (opp. Batavorum - <69 CE => Ulpia Noviomagus => Municipium Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum)
• Cities in the provinces of Belgic Gaul and Lower Germany with colonia status include Cologne and Xanten
• Meanings of the Latin term vicus include cities without official status, settlements along roads/waterways with central functions, civilian settlements around military fortifications, and in the Late Roman period part of a city
• Villa is a rural settlement with architecture in stone and/or architectural elements with Mediterranean roots, aimed at surplus production, and expressing wealth, power, and knowledge of the dominant power (Roman culture)
• Villa landscape is visually dominated by villas, corresponding to areas like France, while non-villa landscape corresponds to areas like a large part of the Netherlands
• House types Oss 5, Oss 5/Alphen-Ekeren, Alphen-Ekeren, and Oss 9 have different core structures and wall constructions, with varying roof supporting posts and dates
• House types


  • Oss 5 (Late Iron Age)
  • Oss 5/Alphen-Ekeren
  • Alphen-Ekeren (Roman period)
  • Oss 9 (Roman period)
• Oss 5 (Late Iron Age)


  • Central row of roof-bearing posts, paired posts
• Oss 5/Alphen-Ekeren


  • Paired posts, roof-bearing posts are bigger and deeper
• Alphen-Ekeren (Roman period)


  • Very deep and large roof-bearing posts, typical house for Roman period
• Oss 9 (Roman period)

  • Combination of two-aisled and three-aisled
• The term ‘Romanisation’ was coined in the 19th century
• Previously, Romanisation was understood as a cultural influence of Rome on larger levels like Roman cities, religion, and the economy by German scholar, Mommsen