Classical conditioning

• Conditioning is the simplest form of associated learning.  This means the learning takes place when we come to associate two stimuli with one another
• Classical Conditioning was discovered by Pavlov in the early 19th century. 
• Classical conditioning takes place when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together, an unconditional stimulus (UCS) and a neutral stimulus (NS).  The NS eventually produces the same response as that produced by the UCS.  

  Initially, the UCS Classical produces an unconditioned response (UCR) which is always a reflex response, such as fear or salivation.
• During conditioning, the UCS and UCR are ‘paired’ with the NS close together in time.  Usually pairing has to take place many times for learning to occur.

  Finally, following pairing, the NS produces the same response as the UCS.  The NS has become the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and the Neutral Response (no response)  has become a Conditioned Response (CR) to the CS.
• This is supported by Watson and Rayner’s research. A strength of this study was there was high reliability as the researchers kept the variables the same
• This is supported by Watson and rayner who managed to create a phobia in a young child by creating a fear response from a neutral stimulus. They did this by pairing the NS (white rat)  with the UCS (loud noise)  which produced the UCR (fear response).
• Over pairing the NS becomes the CS as it produces the same CR  as the UCS.  A strength of Watson and Rayner is that the procedure has high reliability  as the procedure is standardised since the same range of objects are used throughout and the same stimulus is used. This means that the procedure can be easily replicated to check for consistent results on classical conditioning.
• One weakness of classical conditioning is Skinners (1948) study on both rats and pigeons. This involved placing one of the animals in a Skinner box to observe whether they could learn a desired behaviour (pushing a lever) when a green light (stimulus) is presented in order to receive a positive reinforcement (a food pellet). Skinner also used electric shocks as positive punishment. He showed that desirable behaviours can be learnt and maintained through both reinforcements and punishments.
• He showed that desirable behaviours can be learnt and maintained through both reinforcements and punishments. This suggests that a desired behaviour is a result of consequences of negative behaviour. Therefore, this refuting research is a weakness of operant conditioning as it decreases the validity of the theory of classical conditioning that claims that learning occurs when we come to associate two new stimuli with one another. 
• Extinction

  When the CS is experienced without the UCS over a period of time the CS may be extinguished and fails to elicit the CR.  This makes the CS extinct.
• Spontaneous Recovery.  Sometimes extinct responses reappear, even without new pairings with the UCS and this is known as spontaneous recovery.

  Stimulus Generalization

  Sometimes, we become conditioned to respond to one stimulus but we find ourselves exhibiting the same response to other similar stimuli.  This is called stimulus generalization.

  One Trial Learning – this happens when the pairing produces a conditioned response the very first time it happens.  
• Main point

  This is supported by the the theory Watson and Rayner when they conditioned a fear response in a young boy called Albert to a white rat. They found that Albert also showed fear to similar objects, such as a white rabbit and dog therefore demonstrating generalisation of the fear. 
• A month later, Albert showed less or no fear to some of the conditioned stimuli such as the dog which he was no longer afraid of. 
• Having supporting research is a strength as it increases the validity of the theory of Classical Conditioning in explaining how reflex behaviours are generalised and can become extinct. 
• The theory of operant conditioning is a weakness to Classical conditioning being the thought of as only method of learning.
• Operant conditioning is learning based theory that determines future behavior from consequence of past behavior. In Operant conditioning behavior is made  more desirable through use of reinforcement and less desirable through us of punishment. Negative reinforcement requires taking away and unpleasant consequence when desired behavior is displayed and positive reinforcement is rewarding good behaviour. Negative punishment is taking away something pleasant and positive punishment is giving an unpleasant consequence.
• The existence of this theory shows that learning can occur without classical conditioning and that operant condition may also work better in some situations.
• Application

  AO3

  A strength of this is that there is research supporting the effective treatment of fear of flying, using Systematic Desensitisation, based on CC principles, e.g. Capafons et al found that 90% of ppts reported a lower fear of flying after completing Systematic Desensitisation (SD).  SD is based on CC and is successful in treating phobias, therefore the CC theory has high real life application which is a strength.
• Alternative A03:

  However, SD does not have a 100% success rate as demonstrated in Capafons et al's study with 10% of participants not being success in reducing their fear of flying using SD.  
• capafons et al study is a weakness of the use of classical conditioning because it shows that not all phobias are created through classical conditioning and therefore there is reduced application to help people to improve their quality of life. This means the applicability of this theory is limited and would require direct research as to why some phobias can’t be helped through classical conditioning so that the theory is not a partial explanation for learning through association. 
• Aversion therapy – can be used to alter people’s reflexes eg sexual desire – use in the past to ‘treat’ homosexual men to try to stop them being gay.

  Aversion therapy is a weakness of classical conditioning because it shows that there are ethical issues concerning social control. This shows that people can be manipulated through association to change their behavior e.g sexual preferences. This is a limitation of classical conditioning because there are issues of manipulation and social control which can reduce quality of life for some people (having emotions suppressed).
• There is ample evidence to show that both humans and animals can acquire simple involuntary learned behaviours by classical conditioning.  Therefore, its existence is not controversial.  However, it only explains the acquisition of a small range of simple reflex behaviours and is therefore only a partial explanation of learning.