Cultural bias

• What is a culture?

  Rules, customs, morals & ways of interacting that bind together members of a society or some other collection of people. Can constrain way you see, feel & think.
• What is cultural bias?

  People of 1 culture make assumptions about behaviour of people from another culture based on their own cultural norms & practices. Much of traditional psychology rooted in Western ideas. Theories & research techniques assumed to be universal have basis in Western world
• How can cross-cultural studies be used?

  See whether cultural practices affect behaviour (type of natural experiment). IV is e.g, child rearing techniques in different cultures & DV is a behaviour e.g, aggression. Enables researchers to see if variations in levels of aggression are due to different culturally determined child-rearing techniques.
• What is imposed etic?

  Use of psychological tests/techniques developed in 1 culture & used in another.
• What are the advantages of cross-cultural studies?

  Enable us to consider whether behaviours are innate-if behaviour same in all cultures, it must be part of our genetic make-up. E.g, Buss (1989).
• Buss (1989):


  Looked at relationships in 36 countries & found same mate preferences- men look for youth & good looks, women look for resources, ambition & industriousness. Participants interviewed by indigenous researcher. 3 bilingual speakers: 1 translated OG questionnaire into native language, 2nd translated answers back into English & 3rd resolved any discrepancies.
• Disadvantages of cross-cultural studies?

  Imposed etic- may use tests/procedures developed in US & aren't valid in other culture. Participant group may not be representative of culture. Observer bias & investigator effects. Western researchers conducting research in different culture may fail to understand local practices & meanings & thus misrepresent participants' understanding.
• Who suggested alpha & beta bias?

  Hare-Mustin & Maracek (1998).
• What is ethnocentrism?

  Use of our own ethnic or cultural group as a basis for judgements about other groups. Fairly natural human tendency. Needs to be minimised when conducting objective research.
• Alpha bias in terms of ethnocentrism: 


  Assumption there's real & enduring differences between cultural groups. Belief one's own culture is considered to be different & better. Consequence= other cultures & their practices are devalued.
• Beta bias in terms of ethnocentrism:

  Theories that ignore or minimise cultural differences. Ethnocentrism may lead to beta bias if tests (e.g, Kohlberg) are assumed to have same meaning in all cultures.
• What is cultural relativism?

  Idea all cultures equally worthy of respect & that in studying another culture we need to understand way particular culture sees world. Can result in alpha & beta bias.
• How can cultural relativism lead to alpha bias?

  Assumption of real differences leads psychologists to overlook universals.
• How can cultural relativism lead to beta bias?

  Overgeneralisation. E.g, defining mental disorder. Hearing voices regarded unusual in Western world & symptom of scz, but in some cultures it's normal. Those who report symptoms may be misdiagnosed by western psychiatrists as scz.
• Why is Kohlberg an example of cultural bias?

  Dilemmas may have not made sense to other cultural groups. Theory generalised to all cultures. (etic bias).
• Asch (1951):


  Research into conformity only used Americans & results generalised.
• What is observer bias?

  Expectations alter what's seen.
• What are investigator effects?

  Participants guess what answers researcher wants & so provides them.
• Cultural bias


  Not concerned with difference between cultural groups, but the distorted view that psychologists have due to their own cultural affiliations and how this bias affects their theories and studies
• Cultural bias


  Not concerned with difference, but the distorted view that psychologists have due to their own cultural affiliations & how this bias affects their theories & studies
• Findings may be due to cultural bias

  If SWB measured with questionnaire designed by Western researchers (imposed etic) questions probably based on Western (individualist) assumptions of what constitutes SWB
• Collectivist may appear different

  Methods used to test/observe are biased so cultural groups appear different
• Myers & Diener (1995): 'Noted those in individualist cultures report greater SWB than those in collectivist' (alpha bias)
• Kohlberg:


  Dilemmas may not have made sense to other cultural groups. (Alpha bias)
• Historical contexts:


  Different historical periods can be regarded as different cultures. E.g, Bowlby (1944) conducted more than 60 years ago when child-care arrangements very different. Findings may not generalise to modern arrangements as they have changed (to some extent due to his research). Now much more time spent on ensuring emotional well-being of children- may lead people to misjudge standards in 1950s.
• Social contexts:


  Sub-cultures (e.g, student populations, nurses, delinquents) also have common set of customs & beliefs. Issue in research is use of students as participants. Students are unique sub-culture.
• Smith & Bond (1998)

  Most psychological research on Americans. Analysis of British textbook found 66% of studies were American, 32% European & 2% rest of world.
• Sears (1986):


  Reported 82% of research studies used undergraduates as participants in psychology studies & 51% were psychology students. Large amount psychology based on middle-class, academic, young adults (often male incidentally). Findings confirmed by Heinrich et al (2010). 96% of research participants in sample of hundreds of studies come from Western countries. Studies with US participants- 67% were psychology undergraduates. Unrepresentative globally & within Western culture.Suggestspsychologicalknowledgebasedonweirdpopulation:westernisededucatedpeoplefromindustrialisedrichdemocracies.