conflict

• Eisenhower vs Kennedy:

  • Political - Eisenhower because helped turn people against Ho Chi Minh. More anti-communist support.
  • Economic - Kennedy because it helped the ARVN by sending money and troops giving them a larger advantage than Eisenhower's supplies.
• Gulf of Tonkin:

  Marked a pivotal moment in the Vietnam War, leading to an escalation of US military involvement.
• Gulf of Tonkin (Part 1):

  • Before: Operation plan 34A - USA sent destroyers to the Gulf of Tonkin to support South Vietnam (USS Maddox)
  • USS Maddox: monitored the signals sent out by radar stations being targeted.
  • 3rd August: Three torpedo boats (North) headed towards the Maddox. The Maddox fired which triggered the torpedoes.
• Gulf of Tonkin (Part 2):

  • 4th August: Reports from Maddox came in saying another attack was about to be launched. US jets confirmed. US captain said he wasn't sure if it was happening
  • Johnson's reaction: Ignored the doubts and launched attack on North Vietnam
  • Gulf of Tonkin resolution: Approved by the US - Gave president power to take any military measure- Johnson used these powers
• Operation Rolling Thunder (ORT)

  It is a carpet bombing of North Vietnam by US planes. It was triggered by the Vietcong attack on the US air base (Camp Holloway)

  • It was supposed to last 8 weeks but ended up lasting 3 years.
  • 24% disagree, 61% agree with the decisions. Johnson influenced the public.
• Vietcong Tactics

  • They were at a disadvantage as they were against one of the biggest armies and didn't have as much technological knowledge.
  • They didn't wear uniform so weren't seen as the enemy. Worked in small well-armed troops to destroy morale (Guerrilla Tactics)
  • Had to stay close to the US as they couldn't launch a full scaled attack.
  • Ho Chi Minh trail - Paths and tracks to transport weapons, food, and soldiers.
• Tunnels (Vietcong Tactic):

  They went underground to avoid detection. Stretched over 300km under the jungles. They were booby trapped to stop the US soldiers from getting too deep.

  • Used because the US had superior air power; the Vietcong needed to be able to sneak up on the US soldiers unseen.
• Punji Traps (Vietcong Tactic):

  Bamboo stakes were sharpened and hidden in shallow pits, covered by leaves. Could pierce through army boots and injure limbs. Vietcong would coat them in human excrement to cause infection.

  • Used because the US had more superior weapons but were not used to fighting in jungle terrain. These types of weapons were more suited and very effective.
• Bouncing Betty (Vietcong Tactics):

  When these bombs were triggered they were launched into the air and detonated around 1m from the ground. Designed to explode at stomach height.

  • Used because the US had more superior weapons but were not used to fighting in jungle terrain. These types of weapons were more suited and very effective.
• Violence (Vietcong Tactic):

  Police, Tax collectors, Teachers, and Government workers were attacked. The Vietcong killed 27,000 civilians between 1966 and 1971.

  • Used to prevent locals informing on them to the South Vietnamese authorities, to be feared.
• Propaganda (Vietcong Tactic):

  Posters showed the Vietcong overpowering the US army. Involved women and children to show that everyone wanted to remove the Americans from Vietnam.

  • Used to encourage support. To prevent the US attempts at winning the 'hearts and minds' of the South Vietnamese population.
• Vietcong Strengths:

  • 1665 - Vietcong had 170,000 soldiers; North Vietnamese government conscripted and sent 100,000 soldiers south every year.
  • Vietcong bases were well hidden and booby trapped.
  • Supplied with $2 Billion of equipment from China and USSR.
  • Many South Vietnamese peasants supported them as they opposed Diem's rule.
  • Tactics made the US soldiers nervous- lowering US morale.
• Vietcong Weaknesses:

  • Suffered heavy losses - 500,000-900,000 Vietcong soldiers died during the war.
  • Vietcong had no air power.
  • US frustration meant many civilians were killed for being mistaken as Vietcong.
  • Guerrilla tactics meant Vietcong could never fully defeat the US army on their own.
  • 90% of all VC weapons had been taken by the ARVN and US army through ambush.
• Strategic Hamlet (US Tactic):

  US forced the peasants to leave Vietcong-controlled areas and live in defended strategic hamlets. Aim was to win 'hearts and minds' of the people.

  Strengths:

  • Aimed to cut off the peasant support for Vietcong
  • 2/3 of South Vietnamese population were moved.

  Weakness:

  • Many peasants were moved far away from ancestors.
  • Peasants resented being moved and support for VC increased.
• Search and Destroy (US Tactic):

  Destroyed villages supported of supporting Vietcong. Nicknamed Zippo raid after cigarette lighters were used to set the roofs of fires. Aimed to remove VC base and warn anyone who considered supporting VC.

  Strength:

  • Multiple bases were set up from which Search and Destroy missions could be launched.

  Weakness:

  • Terrified Vietnamese peasants
  • Led to many innocent peasants being killed.
  • VC avoided open combat.
• US Patrols/Attrition (US Tactic):

  American troops were set on patrols, supported by air and artillery when attacked. Aim was to kill as many VC soldiers as possible.

  Strength:

  • Around 900,000 Vietcong soldiers were killed.

  Weakness:

  • 400,000 South Vietnamese civilians died.
  • 400,000 troops were killed.
  • 60,000 US troops were killed.
• Operation Rolling Thunder (US Tactic):

  US launched a bombing campaign to destroy North targets. For 3 years B-52 bombers poured millions of tons of high explosives to Vietnamese cities. Supposed to last 8 weeks, lasted 3 years.

  Strength:

  • Bombing disrupted Vietcong supply lines on the Ho Chi Minh trails.

  Weakness:

  • More bombs were dropped on Vietnam than ever in history.
  • Bombing captured few Vietcong.
  • Vietcong operated in underground tunnels.
• Cluster Bombs (US Tactic):

  Sometimes called 'mother bombs' or 'pineapple bombs'. They exploded and released up to 600 smaller bombs that exploded horizontally, damaging anything and anyone they hit.

  Strength:

  • Purposely injured rather than killed the enemy.
  • Aimed to reduce manpower of the enemy.
• Chemical Warfare (US Tactic):

  US used planes to drop chemical to destroy forests that hid tunnels/supply routes. Agent orange was a highly toxic weed killer. Agent Blue would be used to destroy crops. Napalm was a mixture of gelling agent and petrol that would burn anything it landed on.

  Strengths:

  • Reduced Vietcong's efficiency.
  • Killed jungle so US could find tunnel entrance.
  • Killed crops to starve enemy.

  Weakness:

  • Made US very unpopular with peasants.
  • Caused horrific injuries to civilians.
• US blame for own failings:

  • Many US troops took drugs.
  • GI's equipment was unsuitable
  • Many US troops had been drafted and didn't want to be there.
  • Bombing raid, and Search and Destroy led to deaths of many innocent people.
  • US tactics failed to win the hearts and minds of Vietnamese people.
• My Lai Massacre (Events):

  • Occurred on 16th March 1968 in My Lai (South Vietnam), during a 'Search and Destroy' mission.
  • Led by Lieutenant William Calley. Killed over 500 unarmed civilians, including women, children, and elderly men.
  • No Vietcong forced were found in the village yet killings were systematic and brutal. (Torture, Sexual assault, Mutilation)
  • The incident was covered up by military claiming it was successful against Vietcong.
• My Lai Massacre (Consequences):

  • Ron Ridenhour broke the story in 1969 by sending letters to government officials and journalists. Led to investigations that revealed the truth.
  • Hugh Thompson (helicopter pilot) intervened during the massacre to rescue survivors, testifying against perpetrators.
  • Army photographer, Ron Haeberle's graphic images of the massacre shocked the public and made global headlines.
  • Calley was convicted of murder in 1971 but life sentence was reduced to 3 years under house arrest.
  • Deepened resentment towards US forces. Strengthening support for Vietcong.
• The Tet Offensive:

  An example of a battle between the Vietcong and the US/ARVN. It involves the Vietcong launching a series of attacks on US airlines and South Vietnamese towns.
• Tet Offensive (Context):

  The battle of Khe Sanh began on 21st January 1968 when 20,000 soldiers from the PAVN attacked the US marine garrison at Khe Sanh.

  • Lasted 77 days, 6000 US Marines and South Vietnamese allies fought an intense siege of the garrison. Longest and bloodiest battle of the Vietnam War.
  • General Westmoreland preempted the attack, believing the Vietcong intended to launch a set of attacks to reconquer the North of Vietnam.
  • What he didn't realise is that this was only a diversionary attack.
• Tet Offensive (Preliminary Attacks):

  30th January 1968

  • On the eve of the Vietnamese Lunar New Year (Tet), North Vietnamese forces and the Vietcong launched diversionary attacks on towns and US bases in the Central Highlands and along the northern border to distract from the main offensive.
• Tet Offensive (Main Offensive):

  31st January 1968

  • Coordinated assaults were launched across 100 cities and towns in South Vietnam, including Saigon, Hue, and Da Nang. Key targets included the US Embassy in Saigon, which was breached by Vietcong but ultimately re-secured by American forces after 6h of fighting.
• Tet Offensive (Battle of Hue):

  Early February 1968

  • Intense fighting errupted un Hue , where North Vietnamese forces seized control of much of the city. The battle lasted nearly a month, marked by house-to-house combat and civilian casualties.
  • The discovery of mass graces after the city was retaken reveled widespread killings by the North Vietnamese.
• Tet Offensive (Counterattacks and Retaking of Cities):

  February-March 1968

  • US and South Vietnamese forces launching counter offensives, reclaiming towns and cities over several weeks. The Vietcong suffered devastating losses, losing tens of thousands of fighters.
• Tet Offensive (Consequences):

  • Militarily, it was a failure for North Vietnam and the Vietcong who suffered heavy losses, with an estimated 50,000 killed.
  • However, it was a strategic success, as the widespread attacks shocked American public opinion and undermined confidence in US claims of progress. The offensive marked a turning point, intensifying anti-war sentiment in the US and leading to decreased public support for the war.
• Nixon's Election:

  November 1968

  • Richard Nixon was elected US president in November 1968, campaigning on a promise to achieve 'peace with honour' in Vietnam.
  • Nixon appealed to the 'silent majority' of Americans frustrated with the Vietnam War and the growing anti-war protests.
  • His election marked a shift towards a more pragmatic approach to ending US involvement in Vietnam.
• The Widening of the War:

  • Nixon escalated the conflict into neighbouring Cambodia and Laos to disrupt the Ho Chi Minh Trail, a vital supply route for the Vietcong
  • Cambodia (1970): US and ARVN forces launched a large-scale invasion to destroy communist bases. This led to massive anti-war protests, including the Kent State shootings.
  • Laos (1971): ARVN troops, supported by US airpower, attempted to cut off North Vietnamese supply lines during Operation Lam Son 719 but suffered heavy losses. The widening of the war intensified opposition at home and drew international condemnation.
• The policy of Vietnamisation :

  • Announced in 1969, Vietnamisation aimed to reduce US involvement by transferring combat responsibilities to the ARVN.
  • US troops were gradually withdrawn while ARVN forces were trained and equipped to fight the Vietcong and North Vietnamese.
  • By 1972, US troop numbers in Vietnam dropped from over 500,000 to less than 100,000.
  • Successes: Reduced US casualties and addressed domestic opposition to the war.
  • Failures: ARVN struggled with morale, corruption, and poor leadership, leaving South Vietnam vulnerable after US withdrawal.