Exam bio

• Taxonomy


  Organizing living things into groups, figuring out how they're related, and giving them special names to help keep track of them
• Taxonomy


  1. Family Names: Each living thing gets a special two-part name, like "Homo sapiens" for humans. The first part is the genus, and the second part is the species

  2. Family Tree: Grouping living things into categories based on similarity, starting with specific groups (like species) and moving up to more general groups (like kingdoms)

  3. Family Traits: Looking at shared traits among living things to determine relationships

  4. Evolutionary History: Using clues from evolution to organize living things

  5. Representatives: Each group has a special "representative" member that helps define it

  6. Rules and Codes: Following rules when naming and organizing living things to keep consistency
• Primary eight taxa (taxonomic ranks)

  • Domain
  • Kingdom
  • Phylum (or Division in plants)
  • Class
  • Order
  • Family
  • Genus
  • Species
• Binomial nomenclature


  A way scientists name living things using a two-word name, with the first word as the genus and the second as the species
• Binomial nomenclature


  1. Two-Part Names: Each living thing gets a special two-word name

  2. Writing Style: Genus starts with a capital letter, and both words are italicized or underlined

  3. Uniqueness: Every living thing has its own unique name

  4. Clear and Simple: Names should be easy to understand and not confusing

  5. Publication: Names are officially recognized when published in scientific journals or books following specific rules
• Interpreting and applying information from taxonomical rankings

  1. Organizing Groups

  2. Finding Relationships

  3. Comparing Traits

  4. Identification Tools

  5. Understanding Diversity

  6. Learning from History

  7. Practical Uses
• Phylogeny


  Creating a big family tree for all living things to show how different species are connected through their ancestors
• Phylogeny


  Connections: Showing how different species are connected through their ancestors
• Phylogeny and how it’s determined

  1. Connections: Phylogeny shows how different species are connected through their ancestors. It's like tracing your family history but for all living creatures.

  2. Evidence: Scientists use different clues to build this tree, like fossils, how creatures look, and even their DNA.

  3. Comparing Traits: By looking at what creatures have in common, scientists can guess how closely related they are. The more similar their traits, the more likely they're related.

  4. Using DNA: DNA is like a blueprint for life. By comparing the DNA of different species, scientists can see how similar they are and figure out their family ties.

  5. Making the Tree: Special computer programs help scientists put all this information together to create the tree. Each branch represents how species evolved over time.

  6. Testing and Learning: Scientists keep testing and refining the tree as they learn more. It's an ongoing process that helps us understand how life has changed and adapted over millions of years.
• Phylogeny is like a giant puzzle that helps us piece together the story of life on Earth
• A common ancestor is like a grandparent for different species
• Importance of common ancestors

  1. Connecting Species: Common ancestors show how different species are related. They're like the family ties that link species together.

  2. Understanding History: By studying common ancestors, scientists can learn about the history of life on Earth. They can see how species have changed and adapted over time.

  3. Predicting Traits: Common ancestors can help predict what traits species might have had in the past or could develop in the future.

  4. Explaining Diversity: Common ancestors help explain why there are so many different species. They show how traits have diversified over time.

  5. Protecting Species: Knowing about common ancestors can help us decide which species are most important to protect for the future.
• Common ancestors are like the family roots of all living things, helping us understand how life has evolved and diversified over millions of years
• How phylogeny is represented in cladograms and phylogenetic trees

  1. Cladograms: Look like family trees with lines and points, show how species are related based on shared traits, keep it simple, just showing basic relationships.

  2. Phylogenetic Trees: Similar to cladograms but with more details, show how species are related based on traits and genetic info, include more info like time or how much change happened over evolution.
• Cladograms are like quick sketches of family connections, while phylogenetic trees are like detailed maps showing more about how species are related
• Definitions of groups


  • Clade: A group of animals that includes an ancestor and all its descendants
  • Monophyletic Group: A special type of clade where all members share a common ancestor, and no one else is left out
  • Paraphyletic Group: Includes an ancestor and some but not all of its descendants, usually because some have evolved differently
  • Polyphyletic Group: A group that includes different organisms, but they don't share a common ancestor
• Example of Clade


  Mammals, including humans, dogs, and whales, form a clade because they all come from a common ancestor
• Example of Monophyletic Group


  Birds are a monophyletic group because all birds come from a common ancestor, and there are no other animals included
• Example of Paraphyletic Group

  Reptiles (excluding birds) form a paraphyletic group because they all come from a common ancestor, but birds, which are also descendants, are excluded
• Example of Polyphyletic Group


  If we grouped bats (mammals) and birds together based on their ability to fly, it would be a polyphyletic group because they have different ancestors
• How to interpret information and apply information given from cladograms

  Understanding Relationships: Cladograms show how different anim
• Bats (mammals) and birds


  Don't share a common ancestor
• How to interpret information and apply information given from cladograms

  1. Understanding Relationships: Cladograms show how different animals or plants are related based on their traits

  2. Finding Common Ancestors: They help identify where different groups split from a shared ancestor

  3. Spotting Groups: Cladograms highlight groups called clades, which include an ancestor and all its descendants

  4. Comparing Traits: You can compare the traits of different groups to see what they have in common and how they're different

  5. Learning History: They give insights into the history of how species evolved and diversified over time

  6. Using the Information: Scientists use cladograms to study evolution, identify species, plan conservation efforts, and even predict what traits species might have
• Cladograms are like maps that help us understand how different species are related and how they've changed over millions of years
• Traits shared by all living organisms

  • Made of Cells
  • Need Energy
  • Stay Balanced
  • React to Changes
  • Make Babies
  • Pass on Traits
  • Change Over Time
• Nucleus


  Controls the cell's activities and holds its DNA
• Mitochondria


  Produces energy for the cell
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)


  Helps make proteins and move them around the cell
• Golgi Apparatus


  Packages and sends proteins to where they're needed
• Lysosomes


  Cleans up waste and breaks down old parts of the cell
• Chloroplasts (in plant cells)


  Turns sunlight into food for the plant
• Vacuoles


  Stores water and nutrients, and helps keep the cell's shape
• Ribosomes


  Makes proteins for the cell
• Cytoplasm


  Gel-like substance that holds everything in place inside the cell
• These parts work together to keep the cell healthy and working properly
• Identify organelles based on appearance and position in cell

  • Nucleus
  • Mitochondria
  • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
  • Golgi Apparatus
  • Lysosomes
  • Chloroplasts (in plant cells)
  • Vacuoles
  • Ribosomes
  • Cytoplasm
• These organelles have specific functions and appearances that help in identifying them within a cell
• Chloroplasts


  • They're like tiny factories that turn sunlight into food for the plant
  • They're green and shaped like jellybeans
• Vacuoles


  • They're like storage tanks, holding water and nutrients for the cell
  • Sometimes they're big, empty bubbles, and sometimes they're filled with stuff
• Ribosomes


  • They are like little workers making proteins for the cell
  • They can be floating around or stuck to the ER like tiny dots