Demography

• Reasons for the declining birth rate - changes in women's position

  • legal equality gives them more say in the matter.
  • Easier to get a divorce.
  • Access to abortion and reliable contraception, giving women more control over their fertility.
  • Harper - more women in education means more women are delaying childbearing in favour of pursuing a career.
• Reasons for the declining birth rate - Decline in infant mortality

  • Harper - if many infants die, then parents have more children to replace those who they lost.
  • Caused by improved housing and sanitation.
  • Better nutrition.
  • Improved knowledge, resources and institutions.
• Reasons for the declining birth rate - Economic liabilities

  • laws - banning of child labour and the compulsory education means children become economically dependent for much longer.
  • Changing norms - people expect more from parents in material terms, which increases the cost of brining up children.
• Effects of changes in fertility - the family

  • Smaller families means less responsibilities for women, who can now go to work and increase the amount of duel earner households.
  • However, better off couples may be able to have larger families and still afford childcare that allows them both to work full-time.
• Effects of changes in fertility - the dependency ratio

  • The relationship between the size of the working part of the population and the size of the non-working part of the population.
  • Fall in number of children reduces the 'burden of dependency' on the working population.
  • The burden will increase again as in the future there will be less adults making up the working part of the population.
• Effects of changes in fertility - public services and policies

  • Fewer schools, maternity and child health services needed.
  • Increases the average age of the population as there are more older people compared to young people.
• Reasons for the decline in death rates - Improved nutrition

  • McKeown - nutrition accounts for up to half the reduction in birth rates.
  • Increased resistance to infection and survival chances to those who did become infected.

  Counter

  • Fails to explain why women, who on average eat less of the family food supply, live longer than men.
  • Fails to explain why diseases like measles or diarrhoea rose at the time of improved nutrition.
• Reasons for the decline in death rates - medical improvements

  • Introduction of antibiotics, immunisation, blood transfusion and improved maternity services.
  • NHS set up in 1948.
  • Bypass surgery has reduced death from heart disease by 1/3.
• Reasons for the decline in death rates - smoking and diet

  • Harper - the greatest fall in death rates has simply from the reduction in the number of people smoking.
  • However, obesity has replaced smoking as the new lifestyle epidemic.
  • Despite the increase in obesity, the deaths by it are still low due to developed treatment.
  • Harper claims we are moving towards an 'American' lifestyle where we are unhealthy but long lifespan is achieved through medicine.
• Effects of an aging population - public services

  • They consume a larger proportion of services such as health and social care.
  • May also mean changes to policies and provision of housing, transport and other services.
• Effects of an aging population - the dependency ratio

  • The non-working old population are an economically dependent group who need to be provided for by the working age.
  • As the number of retired people rises, this increases the dependency ratio and the burden on the working population.
  • Offset by the declining number of children.