Evaluation

• Outline gender bias in psychology

  Universality- any underlying characteristic of humans that can be applied to all. Bias threatens universality of findings in psychology.

  
  

  What is gender bias?

  The differential treatment or representation of men and woman based on stereotypes rather than real difference.

  
  

  Alpha bias

  Exaggerated differences between sexes (often seen as fixed and inevitable). It often devalues females in comparison to males.

  
  

  Beta bias

  Ignores, minimises or underestimates differences between sexes.

  • Androcentric male-centred, normal behaviour is judged according to a male standard; it is often seen as abnormal or inferior if women's behaviour deviates from findings.

  • Gynocentrism the process of viewing the world from a female-centred point of view
• Evaluate gender bias in psychology

  -Sexism can result from gender bias; in the field of psychology male research is more likely to be published; Nicolson 1995, male researchers have the power to label women as irrational and less competent due to androcentric bias; this can also lead to institutionalised sexism

  
  

  +Increasing reflexivity, modern researchers are more aware of their impact; Dambrin and Lambert 2008 take into their own gender related bais when investigating lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms; leads to greater awareness when shaping future research.

  
  

  -The essentialist perspective; that gender differences are fixed in nature and inevitable; Walkerdine (1990) 1930's 'scientific' research said intellectual activity (going to university) would shrivel a woman's ovaries, harming fertility, Political motivations can be disguised by biological facts creating a 'double-standard'.

  
  

  +Feminist psychology; Worrell (1992) suggested criteria to adhere to, to avoid gender bias, including woman should be studied in real life context and actively partake in the research; diversity should be studied and qualitative data should be collected; help avoid bias by more idiographic approach; more valid results.
• Outline cultural bias in psychology

  Cultural bias -To give an advantage to one culture over another/ to ignore the differences between cultures and impose understanding.

  
  

  Cultural relativism: The Imposed Etic

  Etics--> analysis of culture from the perspective of someone not involved in it.

  
  

  If we impose western beliefs on people from other cultures or belief systems we call it an 'imposed etic'.

  
  

  Emics- The constructs particular to a specific culture (differences).

  They are specific to particular cultures, so they vary from place to place. These are liable to be ignored or misinterpreted as researchers from one culture may not be sensitive to local emics.

  
  

  Ethnocentrism

  This is a belief that the ethnic group with which the individual identifies is superior to other groups. The individual uses their own ethnic group to evaluate and make judgements about other individuals from other ethnic groups.

  
  

  In white middle-class culture it is assumed that making eye contact is a sign of trust. So, a conclusion could be that black women trust each other less than white women as pairs of black woman make eye contact less than pairs of white woman.

  
  

  This can lead to misunderstandings between cultures.
• Evaluate cultural bias in psychology

  --- Amplifying and validating stereotypes; pre-WW1 Americans devised an IQ test for the military, it showed further north your heritage was (dominantly white) the higher IQ you had, this showed African-Americans at the bottom of scale, later found that high score relied on understanding of northern European and American cultures; promoted stereotypes; negative real-life impact.

  
  

  + Challenging 'implicit assumptions' To avoid cultural bias greater use of cross-cultural studies should be encouraged; Cross-cultural studies study many different cultures to identify the variations, Transcultural approach studies many different cultures to identify the similarities; shows differences; results more valid.

  
  

  --- Simplistic divisions between cultures; individualist and collectivist distinction; based on different stereotypes and fails to consider differences other than basic main distinctions; but Takano % Osaka (1999) found that 14 out of 15 cross-cultural studies found no evidence of traditional distinctions meaning the problem might not be as bad as it once was.

  
  

  + One way to deal with cultural bias is to recognise it, (Smith and Bond 1998) 66% of studies in textbooks were American; international psychology conferences increase the exchange of ideas, reduced ethnocentrism; heightened awareness lead to indigenous psychologies on specific groups i.e. Afrocentrism which led to emergence of theories more relevant to people in and removed from African origins.
• Outline free-will and determinism

  Free will- The ability to make decisions and choose behaviours freely; behaviour is under the control of the choosing of an individual rather than other forces. Humanistic approach.

  
  

  Determinism- A belief that all behaviour is caused by prior events or external and internal factors, leaving no room for alternatives.

  
  

  Hard determinism

  Free will is not possible as all behaviour has an underlying cause- scientific emphasis as we can predict the outcomes based on environment

  
  

  Soft determinism

  All behaviour has a cause but can also be determined by rational conscious choices.

  
  

  Biological determinism

  Behaviour is caused by biological influences that we can't control

  Environmental determinism

  Behaviour is caused by features of the environment. Reinforcements throughout life

  
  

  Psychic determinism

  Links to psychodynamic view that unconscious conflicts repressed in childhood will cause us to behave in a certain way.
• Evaluate free-will and determinism

  + Determinism is consistent with science and ability to predict; ability to predict means treatments for mental illnesses are available; no on would choose to have schizophrenia; this has useful real-life application

  
  

  --- But hard determinism not consistent with the legal system, it isn't falsifiable (impossible to disprove) people held morally accountant; as can't be proved or disproved not as scientific as it first appears.

  
  

  + Free will has good face validity; exercised though everyday experience; believing in free will makes you mentally happier, those with an internal locus of control (Roberts et al 2000) this is most important

  
  

  --- Free will is not supported by brain studies (our brains make decisions before we are aware of them) Siong Soon et al 2008 brain activity before conscious decision; what we think is free will is pre-determined.
• Outline the nature-nurture debate

  Nature

  Nature aspect is rooted in nativist theory - knowledge/abilities are innate as determined by biology.

  Genes provide the blueprint for all behaviours; some present from birth, others pre-programmed to emerge with age.

  
  

  Nurture

  An individual's behaviour is determined by the environment- the things people teach them, the things they observe, and because of the different situations they are in.

  
  

  Relative importance of hereditary and environment

  Hereditary coefficient shows to what extent something has a genetic bias within the ranges 0-1.0, (1 being entirely genetically determined)

  
  

  The interactionalist approach

  Both are important. The diathesis-stress model suggests biological vulnerability that is triggered by an environmental stressor. Tienari et al 2004, Finnish adoptees study, those with a relative more likely to be vulnerable and with a 'dysfunctional' family relationship.

  
  

  Epigenetics --> changes to our genetic activity without changing our genetic code, these can also be passed down through generations; Dias and Ressler 2014 rats offspring phobic of acetophenone as mother was conditioned.
• Evaluate the nature-nurture debate

  --- Both nativism and empiricism both have negative implications; by believing just genetics has an influence people may attempt to link race and intelligence or use eugenics for policies; empirics may use behavioural shaping to control populations; both have a lack of free will

  
  

  + For twin studies; same environment and same genes? Actually the reason concordance rates are different is that twins can still have separate experiences

  
  

  --- Constructivism; agrees that genes and environment interact, people will create their own nurture by seeking what fits their nature; aggressive child likes an aggressive setting; Plomin 1994 called this niche-picking and niche-building; suggests the two cannot be separated so never studied independently.

  
  

  + Gene-environment interaction; Scarr and McCartney (1983) identified 3: Passive interaction - parents' genes influence way they treat their child; Evocative interaction - child's genes influence & shape the environment in which they grow up; Active interaction - child creates own environment through the people and experiences it selects; complex model.
• Outline holism and reductionism

  Holism The theory that the parts of any whole cannot exist and or be understood except in relation to the whole

  
  

  Reductionism The theory that all complex systems can be completely understood in terms of their components

  
  

  Levels of explanation:

  Socio-cultural - psychological - physical - physiological - neurochemical

  
  

  • Biological reductionism; behaviour is reduced to a physical level & explained in terms of neurones, neurotransmitters, hormones, brain structure, etc. research has furthered understanding of effects of drugs on biochemical processed.

  • Environmental reductionism; behaviour can be reduced to simple building blocks or stimulus and response associations and that complex behaviours are a series of S-R chains
• Evaluate holism and reductionism

  + For holism; complete understanding; Stanford prison, conformity and de-individualisation only understood in a group setting; holism provides a completed understanding.

  
  

  --- Against holism; vague and speculative; humanistic psychology relies on empirical data so is really a set of concepts; combination of perspectives is hard to apply to therapy as no evidence to suggest which is most influential; depression treated with CBT.

  
  

  + For reductionism; variables can be broken down and studied precisely; operationalised variables means specific reasons/causes can be investigated; more credibility.

  
  

  --- Against reductionism; explanations at a genetic level cannot account for meaning within a social context; physiological processes stay the same but reasoning changes; has been oversimplified leading to a loss of validity.
• Outline idiographic and nomothetic approaches

  IdiographicUnderstanding behaviour through studying individual cases.

  Rejects scientific method as should study individual as we are all unique. This means data is generally qualitative as we aim to understand not make general laws.

  
  

  Examples:

  Humanistic approach; documents conscious experience using self-report

  Psychodynamic approach (Freud based this one his few case studies)

  
  

  Nomothetic Understanding behaviour through developing general laws that apply to all people.

  Very scientific though use of experiments as opposed to case studies and unstructured interviews.

  
  

  Examples:

  Behavioural approach (animal behaviour created concepts for approach)

  Biological

  Cognitive
• Evaluate idiographic and nomothetic approaches

  + Case for the idiographic approach; complete account of individual; one case may generate new hypothesis for the whole field, HM demonstrated there must be multi STM stores

  
  

  --- Case against the idiographic approach; narrow and restricted view; Freud & Oedipus complex; conclusions subjective

  
  

  + Case for the nomothetic approach; more scientific; prediction and control; applied to modern IQ testing; greater scientific credibility

  
  

  --- Case against the nomothetic approach; using statistical results in the loss of the whole person; subjective experience is ignored/looks at numbers as opposed to the person; schizophrenia, not as useful.
• Outline ethical implications of research studies and theories

  Ethical issues arise when there is conflict between psychology's need for valid and valuable research and preserving the rights and dignity of participants.

  
  

  Socially sensitive research

  -studies in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or indirectly for the groups represented by the research.

  
  

  Concerns with socially sensitive research...

  Sieber and Stanley 1988 identified a number of concerns that researchers should be mindful of when conducting research:

  • Research may give 'scientific' justification for discrimination or prejudice.

  • Findings may be used by government to shape public policy for political reasons (the 11+ and Bowlby's attachment).

  • Findings may be invaluable/fraudulent (Burt's research into intelligence and 11+)
• Evaluate ethical implications of research studies and theory

  + Benefits of socially sensitive research; can benefit society; by reducing prejudice by researching 'taboo' subjects and the effects of unreliable eyewitness testimony helping bring about the enhanced eyewitness testimoney.

  
  

  --- Government and other institutions can manipulate; social control; 1920s USA 'feeble minded' sterilisation;

  
  

  + Ethical issues can be addressed by ensuring researchers have an 'open mind' and are prepared to challenge their preconceptions, evidence of this can be seen through becoming aware of and challenging cultural and gender bias in research.

  
  

  --- We cannot predict the impact of research; although its scrutinised only when it is public will the impact be known, potentially harmful for minorities studied.