Anatomy

• Physiology


  • Recognize structures as dynamic rather than static or unchanging
• Major Goals of Physiology

  • Understand and predict the body's responses to stimuli
  • Understand how the body maintains conditions with a narrow range of values in the presence of continually changing environment
• Characteristics of Life


  • Organization
  • Metabolism
  • Responsiveness
  • Growth
  • Development
  • Reproduction
  • Homeostasis
• Organization


  Condition in which the parts of an organism have specific relationship to each other and interact to perform specific functions
• Metabolism


  Ability to use energy to perform vital functions such as growth, movement, and reproduction
• Responsiveness


  Ability of an organism to sense changes in the environment and make adjustments to maintain life
• Growth


  Increase in size of all organisms, can result from an increase in cell number, cell size, or the amount of substance surrounding cells
• Development


  Changes an organism undergoes through time, involves growth and differentiation
• Reproduction


  Formation of new cells or new organisms
• Homeostasis


  Maintenance of variables such as body temperature around the ideal normal value or set point
• Body Positions: Anatomic position refers to a person standing erect with the face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward
• Body Directional Terms: Right and left are retained as directional terms in anatomic terminology. Up is replaced by Superior, down is replaced by Inferior, front is replaced by Anterior, and back is replaced by Posterior
• Proximal means nearest, whereas distal means distant, used to refer to linear structures such as limbs
• Organ Systems and their Major Functions

  • Integumentary System
  • Skeletal System
  • Muscular System
  • Lymphatic System
  • Respiratory System
  • Digestive System
  • Nervous System
  • Endocrine System
  • Cardiovascular System
• Components of the Nervous System

  • Brain
  • Spinal cord
  • Nerves
  • Sensory receptors
• Components of the Endocrine System

  • Glands such as pituitary that secretes hormones
• Components of the Cardiovascular System

  • Heart
  • Blood vessels
  • Blood
• Components of the Urinary System


  • Kidneys
  • Urinary bladder
  • Ducts that carry urine
• Reproductive system functions


  1. Produce egg and sperm cells

  2. Transport and sustain these cells

  3. Nurture the developing fetus

  4. Produce hormones
• Categories of Organ Systems

  • Support, Movement and Protection
  • Integration and Coordination
  • Maintenance of the Body
  • Production and Development
  • Body Cavities and Membranes
• Body Cavities


  • Posterior (Dorsal) Body Cavity
  • Cranial cavity-Brain-Meninges
  • Vertebral canal-Spinal cord-Meninges
  • Anterior (Ventral) Body Cavity
  • Thoracic Cavity-Lungs-Pleura
  • Heart-Pericardium
  • Abdominopelvic Cavity-Abdominal Cavity-Digestive Organs-Kidneys-Liver Peritoneum-Pelvic Cavity-Reproductive Organs-Urinary Bladder-Rectum-Peritoneum
• Functions of the Skeletal System
• Classification of Bones


  • Long Bones
  • Short Bones
  • Flat Bones
  • Irregular Bones
  • Round Bones
• Major Bones of the Skeleton

  • Skull
  • Clavicle
  • Sternum
  • Humerus
  • Ribs
  • Vertebral Column
  • Pelvis
• Vertebrate


  An organism in which the notochord found in all chordates has been replaced by a segmented series of bones-vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs
• Pelvis


  Either the lower part of the trunk of the human body between the abdomen and the thighs or the skeleton embedded in it
• Ulna


  A long bone found in the forearm that stretches from the elbow to the smallest finger, found on the medial side of the forearm
• Radius


  The long bone in the forearm, on the side of the thumb
• Femur


  The most proximal bone of the leg in tetrapod vertebrates capable of walking or jumping, articulating with the acetabulum in the pelvic bone forming the hip joint
• Tibia


  Also known as the shinbone or shank bone, the larger and stronger of the two bones in the leg below the knee, found on the medial side of the leg next to the fibula
• Fibula


  The calf bone located on the lateral side of the tibia, connected above and below, the smaller of the two leg bones
• Long Bone


  Encased by the periosteum except at the epiphysis, covered by articular cartilage, spongy bone of the epiphyses contains red bone marrow, diaphysis contains yellow bone marrow bordered by compact bone
• Compact Bone


  Contains cylindrical shaped units called osteons, osteocytes in tiny chambers called lacunae between concentric layers of matrix called lamellae, matrix contains collagenous protein fibers and mineral deposits
• Spongy Bone


  Contains numerous bars and plates called trabeculae, designed for strength, follows lines of stress like braces used for support in buildings
• Bones are composed of living tissues, able to grow and undergo repair
• Types of cells involved in bone growth and repair

  • Osteoprogenitor cells
  • Osteoblasts
  • Osteocytes
  • Osteoclasts
• Ossification refers to the formation of bone, which occurs in two distinctive ways: Intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification
• Bone formation


  1. Cells derived from connective tissue become osteoblasts that form a matrix resembling the trabeculae of spongy bone

  2. Other osteoblasts associated with a periosteum lay down compact bone over the surface of the spongy bone

  3. Osteoblasts become osteocytes when surrounded by a mineralized matrix
• Endochondral Ossification


  1. Hyaline cartilage models, which appear during fetal development, are replaced by bone as development continues

  2. During endochondral ossification of a long bone, the cartilage begins to break down in the center of the diaphysis, covered by a periosteum

  3. Osteoblasts invade the region and begin to lay down spongy bone in the primary ossification center

  4. Other osteoblasts lay down compact bone, as the compact bone thickens, the spongy bone of the diaphysis is broken down by osteoclasts, and the cavity created becomes the medullary cavity
• Bone growth after birth

  1. Epiphysis of a long bone continues to grow, secondary ossification centers appear in these regions where spongy bone forms and does not break down

  2. A band of cartilage called epiphyseal plate remains between the primary ossification center and width as long as epiphyseal keep increasing in length and width as long as epiphyseal plates are still present