Organic synthesis

• alkenes are hydrolysed in the presence of H2 and nickel catalyst into alkanes. conditions are high temperature
• alkenes are turned into alcohols by electrophilic addition with water. conditions are concentrated H3PO4 and high temperature and high pressure
• to form a halogenoalkane from an alkane via free-radical substitution, we need a halogen and conditions of UV light and temperatures above 450 degrees
• nucleophilic substitution

  • w/ excess ammonia forms amines
  • w/ cyanide ions forms nitriles
  • w/ hydroxides forms alcohols
  • conditions - heat
• halogenoalkane to alkene

  • heat with ethanolic hydroxide such as KOH
  • elimination reaction
• alkene to halogenoalkane

  • electrophilic addition with a halogen
• alkene to alcohol

  • hydration reaction
  • with steam and acid catalyst
• alcohol to alkene

  • elimination / dehydration reaction
  • concentrated H2SO4 or H3PO4 catalyst and heat
• primary alcohol is oxidised by acidified potassium dichromate to form an aldehyde. forms a carboxylic acid with excess K2Cr2O7. heat with distillation with H2SO4 catalyst
• secondary alcohols are oxidised with acidified potassium dichromate to form ketones
• nitriles are reduced to form primary amines using H2 and nickel catalyst
• due to the lone pair on amines, amines can react with excess halogenoalkane to form secondary, tertiary and quaternary ammonium salts. this is a nucleophilic substitution reaction
• primary amines can be reacted with acyl chlorides or acid anhydrides to form secondary amides via nucleophilic addition/elimination reaction
• acyl chlorides or acid anhydrides can be reacted with ammonia to form primary amides via nucleophilic addition/elimination
• alcohols react with carboxylic acids to form esters

  • heat with an acid catalyst
• esters can be hydrolysed under alkaline or acidic conditions into alcohols
• hydroxynitriles can be formed from the reaction between aldehydes or ketones with KCN and H2SO4 in nucleophilic addition reaction
• acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides can be converted into esters using an alcohol in nucleophilic addition/elimination
• acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides react with water to form carboxylic acids via nucleophilic addition/elimination
• benzene can be reacted with acyl chlorides or acid anhydrides with an AlCl3 catalyst to form aromatic ketones. this is done by Friedel-Crafts acylation, which is a type of electrophilic substitution
• benzene reacts with concentrated H2SO4 and concentrated HNO3 at 50 degrees to form aromatic nitro compounds. this is called nitration and is a type of electrophilic substitution
• the nitro group on benzene can be reduced into an aromatic amine with a tin catalyst and HCl