A level Geography

• The carbon cycle needs to be balanced to support planetary health
• Physical processes


  • Control the movement of carbon between stores on land, the oceans and the atmosphere
• Most global carbon is locked in terrestrial stores as part of the long-term geological cycle
• Reliance on fossil fuels has caused significant changes to carbon stores and amplified climate change
• There is a consensus that anthropogenic climate change (caused by human activities) poses a great threat to the planet's health and is caused by accelerating some parts of the carbon cycle, leading to imbalances
• Natural carbon cycle


  Consists of carbon stores of different sizes; the terrestrial (earth), oceans and atmosphere. There are annual variations between stores of varying sizes and rates
• Most of earth's carbon is geological, having formed from sedimentary carbonate rocks in the oceans and biologically derived carbon in shale, coal and other rocks
• In the sea, marine animals

  1. Convert some of their carbon in their diet to calcium carbonate, used to make shells

  2. Overtime, these shells collect on the sea bed and form limestone which, when exposed to air, become weathered and release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere
• Geological processes


  Also release carbon into the atmosphere through volcanic outgassing at ocean ridges and subduction zones as well as from the chemical weathering of rocks, creating a global balance of carbon
• Carbon enters the atmosphere

  1. As carbon dioxide from respiration and combustion

  2. It is absorbed by producers via photosynthesis

  3. Animals consume plants and the carbon compounds travel through the food chain, released via respiration

  4. The animal dies and is eaten by decomposers which return the carbon to the atmosphere
• Phytoplankton


  • Absorb atmospheric carbon during photosynthesis in surface ocean waters
  • Carbonate shells move into deep ocean water through the carbonate pump (the cycling of organic matter in the ocean) and action of the thermohaline circulation (the movement of seawater according to temperature)
• Terrestrial primary producers


  Sequester carbon during photosynthesis which is then returned through respiration of consumer organisms
• Biological carbon


  Stored as dead organic matter in soils and returned through biological decomposition and respiration by decomposers, forming the final component of the carbon cycle
• The concentration of carbon in the atmosphere influences the natural greenhouse effect which is enhanced by fossil fuel combustion
• The natural greenhouse effect is vital in regulating earth's temperature and precipitation but anthropogenic climate change has altered the balance of carbon pathways and stores, having implications on climate, ecosystems and the hydrological cycle
• Ocean and terrestrial photosynthesis regulate the composition of gases in the atmosphere
• Soil health is influenced by stored carbon which is vital for ecosystem productivity, and so the intake of carbon dioxide through ecosystem photosynthesis. Deforestation interrupts this natural regulation by causing soil erosion
• Primary energy


  Natural sources found naturally, such as coal, oil and gas
• Secondary energy


  Converts these primary sources into other forms, such as electricity, for convenience and easy use
• Energy mix


  Made up of domestic and foreign sources; a country will have its own energy sources as well as importing from other nations, having a diverse mix of renewable and non-renewable sources
• Energy consumption is greater for newly industrialised countries, such as India and China, whilst countries in the later stages of The Demographic Transition Model (being more developed) will be more sustainable and conscious of their consumption
• Physical Availability


  • Fossil fuels, solar, wind, tidal and geothermal power depend upon location. Large power stations require flat and stable land to function correctly. There is a mismatch between locations that are abundant in fossil fuels and places which have high demand
• Cost


  • As supply decreases, costs increase. Prices are constantly fluctuating. Onshore oil deposits tend to be cheaper than offshore whilst HEP sites situated near transport routes will be more economical
• Technology


  • New technological developments have allowed oil to be extracted from deeper and more technically difficult environments. There are plans to extract oil from tar sands in Canada and Venezuela
• Public Perception


  • There are cultural preferences around the world, some may be reluctant to adapt to new technology, such as the Amish tribe. Others have doubts over nuclear power after Chernobyl
• Level of Economic Development


  • France can afford 78% of its energy to come from nuclear sources whilst poorer regions, such as Ethiopia, use sources like dung and crops for energy. It may be free but combustion of these sources can cause serious health effects
• Environmental Priority


  • Some states - through public lobbying and government policies - aim to become completely renewable and self-sufficient (e.g. Germany, Costa Rica, Denmark). Other governments prioritise the use of cheap fossil fuels to accelerate their economic development (e.g. China)
• Energy players have different roles in securing pathways and energy supplies. Energy TNCs, such as Shell, are incredibly profitable but are challenged by the recent rise of OPEC and other environmental groups
• OPEC


  Consists of 12 oil producing countries founded in 1960. They aim to stabilise oil prices whilst limiting environmental damage. Though they help compensate the poor and reduce environmental degradation for energy, significant energy producers (e.g. Russia) refuse to be part of the bloc
• Governments can influence conservation through movements such as increasing taxes for large emitting companies. Consumers have a role in voicing their needs through protests, such as the UK riots over mining in the 20th century
• Energy pathways


  • Pipelines, transmission lines or shipping routes are vital in transporting energy sources from producers to consumers. These pathways can become high-risk, prone to piracy, theft, disruption and damage
• Accidents can also cause disruption, such as the Buncefield Oil Depot fires. It is likely that as supply decreases, more conflicts and tensions will arise, slowing the flow of energy between producers and consumers
• With the rising political tensions causing energy insecurity and conflict, some have looked to unconventional fossil fuels
• Some wish to stop using fossil fuels to gain energy security, instead looking towards alternative renewable solutions
• Unconventional Fossil Fuels


  • The development of unconventional fossil fuel energy resources, such as tar sands, oil shale, shale gas and deep water oil, have a myriad of costs and benefits
• Tar Sands in Alberta


  • There are rich tar deposits within Canada which could reduce the nation's dependency on imports whilst providing 33,000 jobs. However, the extraction method for one barrel of tar sand oil is 3 times more energy extensive than producing one barrel of conventional oil. The process is also water intensive; each barrel of oil needs 4 barrels of water which then becomes polluted and cannot be reused. The extraction of tar sands would result in the removal of The Boreal Forest, which is home to 45 unique species
• The Arctic Circle


  • Estimated that 25% of the world's undiscovered oil and gas are present under this pristine environment, which would evidently be destroyed and degraded. There are territorial claims involving Russia so future exploration could cause serious competition and so tensions and political conflicts. There are also high risks of oil spills in logistics
• Nuclear Power


  • Zero greenhouse emissions and reduced reliance on fossil fuels but toxic waste and nuclear disasters such as Chernobyl causes dislike amongst the public. New fast breeder technology will increase production but is based on some aspects of a nuclear weapon, further harming its perception
• Solar Power


  • This is location dependent, suitable for deserts. Solar power heats and provides air conditioning in the Mediterranean. It is expensive but a long-term option
• Wind Power


  • Costs 10% of what it did 20 years ago. Prices will decrease further as new technology is created. There are issues of NIMBYs but this is now controlled due to new developments, such as the mega-watt turbine, which is more efficient, less noisy and more visually pleasing. Wind turbines do impact property levels, affect TV reception and work better offshore albeit this being expensive and disruptive to radar signals