psychodynamic

• -inadequate account of women. Although Freud wrote extensively about the Oedipus complex, much of the theorising on girls' parallel development was undertaken by Jung. Freud’s notion of penis envy has been criticised as reflecting the androcentric Victorian era during which he lived where men held so much power. Indeed, the psychoanalyst Horney 1942 argues that a more powerful emotion than penis envy is men's experience of womb envy a reaction to women's ability to nurture and sustain life. means Freud’s original theory was an incomplete account of gender development.
• pre phallic children:

  • Gender development occurs in the phallic stage (3-6 years), before this, children have no concept of gender identity.
  • They have no understanding of ‘male’ or ‘female’ and so do not categorise themselves or others in that way.

  In the phallic stage, the focus of pleasure for the child is the genitals, and either the Oedipus or Electra complex is experienced. These stages are crucial in the formation of gender identity.
• oedipus complex:

  • Boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother.
  • They have feelings of hatred and jealousy towards their father as he prevents the boy possessing his mother.
  • However, the boy recognises the father is more powerful so fears he may be castrated for his feelings towards his mother leading to castration anxiety.

  To resolve this conflict, the boy gives up his love for his mother and begins to identify with his father.
• electra complex:

  • Girls experience penis envy, and view themselves and their mother as being in competition for their father’s love.
  • Girls develop a double-resentment towards their mother:
  • The mother is a love rival standing in the way of the father
  • Girls blame their mother for their lack of penis (believing the mother castrated her daughter when she castrated her own).

  However, over time, girls come to accept they will never have a penis and substitute penis envy for the desire to have children, identifying with their mothers as a result. (Jung)
• identification and internanlisation:

  • Central to Freud’s theory is that children of both sexes identify (identification) with the same-gender parent to resolve their complexes.
  • Boys adopt the attitudes and values of their father, and girls of their mother.
  • This involves children taking on board the gender identity of the same-gender parent, Freud called this internalisation.

  Therefore, children receive a ‘second-hand’ gender identity all at once at the end of the phallic stage.
• support for the role of the Oedipus complex in gender development. Freud's explanation of gender development means that, for boys, 'normal' development depends on being raised by at least one male parent. Rekers and Morey 1990 rated the gender identity of 49 boys aged 3–11 years based on interviews with their families and the children themselves. Of those who were judged to be 'gender disturbed, 75% had neither their biological father nor a substitute father living with them. suggests that being raised with no father may have a negative impact upon gender identity inline freud predicition
• However,  the relationship between absent fathers and problems of gender identity may not be reliable. A study by Henny Bos and Theo Sandfort (2010) compared data from 63 children where both parents were lesbians and 68 children from 'traditional' families. Children raised by lesbian parents felt less pressure to conform to gender stereotypes and were less likely to assume their own gender was superior, but there were no differences in terms of gender identity.

  This contradicts Freud's theory as it suggests that fathers are not necessary for healthy gender identity development.
• freud criticised lack rigour in his methods subjective case studies. many concepts such as castration anxiety untestable as unconcious therefore cannot be tested scientifically, theory cannot be proven false therefore unfalsifiable not meet scientific criteria. better explained by gender schema theory supported by martin and halverson. suggests alternative explanation favoured
• Freud's inadequate account of women's development. Freud wrote extensively about the Oedipus complex, theorising on girls' development was undertaken by Jung. Freud’s notion of penis envy been criticised as reflecting the androcentric Victorian era during when men held so much power. Indeed, the feminist psychoanalyst Horney 1942 argues more powerful emotion than penis envy is men's experience of womb envy a reaction to women's ability to nurture and sustain life. challenges idea women's gender development is based on a desire to want to be like a man means Freud’s theory incomplete account .