1968-1983

• Black Consciousness Movement (BCM)


  A pivotal socio-political phenomenon that emerged during the latter half of the 20th century in South Africa, stemming from a profound sense of pride in being black and a keen recognition of black history, influenced in part by similar movements in the United States
• The BCM was significant amidst the racially charged environment of apartheid-era South Africa, where black individuals faced systemic discrimination and oppression
• Segregated university campuses


  • Provided a fertile ground for the growth of the BCM, with universities like the University of the North (Turfloop) becoming hotbeds of activism, attracting individuals with ties to liberation movements like the ANC and PAC
• Extension of University Education Act of 1959


  Played a crucial role in fueling student opposition by segregating higher education institutions along racial lines, restricting black students' access to education and perpetuating inequality
• During the 1960s, approximately two-thirds of African people in South Africa identified as Christian, but this religious affiliation did not shield them from the racial discrimination prevalent in society, fueling discontent and resistance
• Banning of the University Christian Movement and unequal treatment of black students at institutions like Turfloop


  • Led to the formation of the South African Students Organization (SASO), a key player in the BCM, advocating for the rights and empowerment of black individuals in South Africa
• Formalization of the BCM structure

  Establishment of the Black People's Convention in 1972, providing a unified platform for black activism and advocacy
• The focus of protest began to shift towards school children as the student population expanded and schools became overcrowded, with the number of students in South Africa increasing from 1 million to 3.5 million between 1950 and 1975, exacerbating tensions and fostering a sense of militancy among young people
• Steve Biko


  • A prominent figure in the BCM, played a central role in its organization and leadership, co-founding SASO in 1968 and serving as its president in 1969, committed to black empowerment and resistance to apartheid
• Biko's activism


  Led to his banning and subsequent persecution by the apartheid government, despite facing constant harassment and surveillance, he continued to champion the cause of black liberation until his arrest in August 1977
• Biko's imprisonment marked the beginning of a harrowing ordeal, subjected to abuse by police and prison wardens, he was ultimately transferred to a hospital in Pretoria, where he succumbed to his injuries on September 12, 1977, sparking international outrage and condemnation
• The circumstances surrounding Biko's death exemplified the brutality of the apartheid regime, and despite widespread calls for justice, the police officers responsible for his death were neither charged nor held accountable, with the government's official statement attributing his demise to a hunger strike challenged by activists who presented evidence of police brutality
• Biko's death galvanized support for the BCM both domestically and internationally, with his funeral, attended by an estimated 10,000 individuals, including political figures, symbolizing the widespread condemnation of apartheid and the determination to continue the struggle for liberation
• The Soweto Uprising of June 16-18, 1976, marked a turning point in the anti-apartheid struggle, triggered by the imposition of Afrikaans as the medium of instruction in black schools, the uprising saw thousands of students take to the streets to protest against the oppressive regime, with the brutal crackdown by security forces resulting in the deaths of hundreds of protesters, further igniting resistance against apartheid
• Challenges faced by the apartheid regime in South Africa

  • Trade unions
  • Bantustans policy
  • Support for the ANC and its policies
  • Liberal opposition
  • Internal divisions within the National Party
  • Information Scandal of 1978
  • Economic and demographic pressures
• Trade unions


  Emerged as a formidable challenge to the apartheid government's authority, with strikes and protests, such as the 1972 strike by the Public Utility Transport Corporation (PUTCO), spreading to over 150 factories, disrupting the economy and highlighting the plight of black workers
• Bantustans policy


  Designed to segregate and control the black population, proved to be economically unsustainable and socially divisive, with the government investing in Bantustan administration while doing little to address the overcrowding and poverty plaguing these areas, exacerbating discontent and resistance among the black population
• Support for the ANC and its policies

  Posed a significant challenge to the apartheid regime, with organizations like the Congress of South African Students (COSAS) adopting ANC policies and spearheading campaigns such as the "Release Mandela" movement, which gained momentum in the 1980s
• Liberal opposition


  Provided a platform for dissent within the predominantly white political establishment, with figures like Helen Suzman challenging apartheid policies, but their impact was constrained by the lack of support and radical ideas
• Internal divisions within the National Party (NP)

  Particularly between the Verligte (progressive) and Verkrampte (conservative) factions, eroded trust within the party and challenged its leadership, weakening its ability to govern effectively
• Muldergate Scandal of 1978

  Revelation that Prime Minister John Vorster had secretly funded propaganda efforts both domestically and internationally, damaged the government's reputation and led to Vorster's resignation, with his successor, P.W. Botha, implementing reforms to restore public trust and stabilize the government
• Economic and demographic pressures

  The population grew by approximately 7 million people between 1970 and 1980, straining resources and exacerbating socio-economic inequalities, while the 1973 oil crisis further strained the economy, prompting the government to implement measures such as the Surplus People's Project to manage population growth
• P.W. Botha's reforms


  Included economic liberalization and constitutional changes, aimed at addressing some of the challenges facing the apartheid regime, but triggered backlash from conservative elements within the NP and intensified resistance from anti-apartheid activists
• Forms of international resistance and pressure against the apartheid regime

  • Diplomatic sanctions
  • Sporting boycotts
  • Grassroots activism
• South Africa's exclusion from the Olympics


  Served as a symbolic rebuke of the apartheid regime's discriminatory policies, with the country suspended from the Olympics in 1964 and formally excluded in 1970
• Gleneagles Agreement of June 1977


  Marked a significant milestone in the international campaign against apartheid, with the Commonwealth nations agreeing to refrain from competing with South Africa in sporting events, further isolating the apartheid regime on the world stage
• "Stop the Seventy Tour" movement in 1969-70

  Demonstrated grassroots opposition to sporting events that legitimized apartheid, with demonstrations and pitch invasions disrupting a planned cricket tour of South Africa, leading to its cancellation in 1970 and drawing attention to the regime's racial policies
• Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM)


  Played a crucial role in mobilizing international solidarity against apartheid, through campaigns such as the "Release Mandela" campaign and lobbying efforts targeting organizations like the World Council of Churches, raising awareness and applying pressure on governments and institutions to divest from South Africa
• "Halt All Racist Tours" movement of 1973


  Targeted sporting events involving South Africa's white rugby team, effectively preventing them from competing in New Zealand, highlighting the international community's rejection of apartheid and its determination to isolate the regime on all fronts
• The global community's stance against apartheid extended to Southern African nations like Angola, Mozambique, Rhodesia (later Zimbabwe), and Namibia, which experienced their own struggles for independence and liberation, with South Africa often intervening to support anti-communist forces aligned with its interests