Quantitative (Positivist) Methods

• PROs of questionnaires:

  • Easy to make
  • Easy to distribute
  • Wide geographical reach
  • Large dataset
  • Data is easy to quantify
• CONs of questionnaires:

  • Inflexible
  • Low response rate
  • Lacks verstehen
  • Closed questions ➡️ 'best fit' answers which lack validity
  • Participants might not be able to operationalise concepts
• Why do Positivists favour questionnaires?

  • Representative, could be generalisable
  • Reliable ➡️ easy to replicate
  • Get quantitative data ➡️ find correlations
  • Large scale
• Why do Interpretivists oppose questionnaires?

  • Low validity
  • Lack verstehen
• Example of famous questionnaire?

  CENSUS!!!
• The Census

  • 1st official census in 1801
  • Every 10 years
  • Published by ONS
  • Can be completed online/by post
  • £1k fine for not completing
  • In 2001, 94% ppl completed it
• What are structured interviews?

  Questionnaires w/ scripted questions read aloud.
• PROs of structured interviews:

  • Improve low response rate - interviewer can explain aims of the research + clarify concerns the respondent may have. Interviewer can also return if person isn't home.
  • Less interviewer bias compared to informal/unstructured interviews since questions are pre-scripted
• Why do Positivists favour structured interviews?

  Standardised interview schedule = reliable scientific data
• CONs of structured interviews:

  • Time-consuming
  • Standardised interview schedule means interviewer can't follow up interesting leads
  • Ppl interpret same Q diff.ly
  • Interviewer inadvertently affects responses via vocal tone, body lang. etc.
• Why do Interpretivists oppose structured interviews?

  They lack validity bc s. interviews are artificial + not part of daily life
• Statistical data

  • 2° collected by non-sociologists but used by sociologists
  • Quantitative data
  • Favoured by Positivists for revealing social facts
• What are the 2 types of statistical data?

  Official + non-official statistics
• Statistical data - Official statistics

  • Gathered by gov. agencies like ONS
  • Huge samples
  • Using same Qs + collecting data annually means official stats can reveal patterns + trends
  • Can be used in longitudinal studies
  • Subject to political manipulation/'massaging' (re-defining a problem to minimise it)
• Statistical data - Non-official statistics

  • Gathered by agencies like charities, market researcher etc.
  • Smaller sample
  • Free from political manipulation/'massaging'
  • BUT can be methodologically flawed
• PROs of statistical data/OS:

  • Cheap to access
  • Up-to-date
  • Identify correlations
  • Sociologists can make comparisons between groups over time
  • Devoid of ethical issues (bc you don't interact w/ ppl)
• Why do Positivists favour statistical data/OS?

  • Standardised categories + data collection techniques = HIGHLY reliable + scientific data
  • Representative bc large sample
  • Quantifiable data lets you identify correlations
• CONs of statistical data/OS:

  • Based on state definitions that sociologists may not agree w/
  • Can be politically manipulated/'massaged'
  • Show incomplete pictures bc the gov. chooses what to research
• Why do Interpretivists oppose statistical data/OS?

  • They reject the social facts that Positivists praise the data for revealing; Interpretivists say social facts are made by powerful state agencies.
  • OS don't show human stories/interpretations
• 3 non-official stat providers:

  • YouGov
  • Ipsos MORI
  • Pew Research
• YouGov

  • Online polling company
  • Founded in 2000
  • Excluded ppl w/o Internet access
• Pew Research

  • American
  • Founded in 1990s
  • Worldwide surveys
  • Non-profit think-tank org.
• What is an artifact?

  Cultural object
• Name 3 examples of 'artifacts':

  Media docs - Films, newspapers, ads

  Communications - Diaries, letters
• What is content analysis?


  • Researcher creates 'schedule' (checklist)
  • Goes through artifact recording how many times certain words/images/concepts occur
  • Creates quantitative interpretation
  • Using semiotics = qualitative interpretation
• What does content analysis show?

  The values/beliefs of the culture that made the artifact - e.g. c. analysis of a mag proves society's obsession with £ + celeb culture
• Why is content analysis a reliable technique?

  • You can re-read/re-watch/re-play artifacts multiple times.
  • Other researchers can verify findings.
• How can content analysis reveal patterns + trends?

  Longitudinal c. analysis shows changing attitudes + inc./dec. in certain concepts.
• PROs of content analysis:

  • Allows large vols. of data to be analysed
  • Objectively measuring categories reduces researcher bias
  • Reductionist bc qualitative data converted to quantitative + can be used to make predictions
• CONs of content analysis:

  • Time-consuming
  • Only shows attitudes of those creating the artifacts e.g. journalists, broadcasters
  • Limited to artifacts that alr. exist
  • Hard to generalise results bc they don't come from all possible sources
• Messner & Cooky content analysis

  • Analysed M/W's sports on 3 LA TV channels + ESPN
  • Longitudinal - collected 3 2-wk segments every 5 years for 30 years
  • Schedule: gender + type + competitive lvl of sport & time given to segment
  • Proved reporting shifted from hyper-sexualising W's sports ➡️ 'gender-bland' reporting AND overall coverage of W's sports hasn't inc.ed