Psychology

• How are early interactions meaningful?

  From a very early age babies and caregivers have intense and meaningful interactions. The quality of these interactions is associated with the successful development of attachments. Two kinds of interaction: reciprocity (taking turns to respond) and interactional synchrony (simultaneous imitation).
• What is reciprocity?


  Reciprocity is achieved when baby and caregiver respond to and elicit responses from each other. For example, a caregiver responds to a baby's smile by saying something, and then the baby responds by making some sounds of pleasure.
• How are alert phases time for interaction in reciprocity?

  Mothers successfully respond around two-thirds of the time (Feldman and Eidelman 2007). From around three months this interaction becomes more intense and reciprocal.
• How do babies have an active role in reciprocity?

  Traditional views of childhood have seen the baby in a passive role, receiving care from an adult. However it seems that babies are active participants. Both caregiver and baby can initiate interactions and take turns to do so.
• What is international synchrony?

  People are said to be synchronised when they carry out the same actions simultaneously. A formal definition is 'the temporal co-ordination of micro-level social behaviour' (Feldman 2007), e g. caregiver and baby mirror each others' behaviour.
• What are the beginnings of interactional synchrony?

  Meltzoff and Moore (1977) observed the beginnings of interactional synchrony in babies as young as two weeks old. Adult displayed one of three facial expressions or one of three gestures. Filmed the baby's response. Babies' expression and gestures were more likely to mirror those of the adults than chance would predict.
• What is the importance of interactional synchrony in attachment?

  Isabella et al. (1989) observed 30 mothers and babies together and assessed the degree of synchrony. The researchers also assessed the quality of mother— baby attachment. They found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother—baby attachment (e.g. the emotional intensity of the relationship).
• What is a strength of caregiver-infant interactions? (use of filmed observations)


  P - One strength of the research on this topic is the use of filmed observations.

  E - Mother—baby interactions are usually filmed, often from multiple angles. Very fine details of behaviour can be recorded and analysed later

  E - Also babies don't know they are being observed, so their behaviour does not change in response to observation (generally the main problem for observational research).

  L - This means the studies have good reliability and validity.
• What is a limitation of caregiver-infant interactions? (hard to observe babies)

  P - One limitation for the research is the diffculty in observing babies.

  E - It is hard to observe babies' behaviour because they are not very co-ordinated. We just observe small gestures and small changes in expression.

  E - It is also hard to interpret the meaning of babies' movements, e.g. deciding if a hand movement is a response to the caregiver or a random twitch.

  L - This means we cannot be certain that any particular interactions observed between baby and caregiver are meaningful.
• What is a limitation of caregiver-infant interactions? (difficulty inferring developmental importance)

  P - Another limitation is diffculty inferring developmental importance

  E - Feldman (2012) points out that synchrony (and reciprocity) simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.

  E - These are robust phenomena in the sense that they can be reliably observed, but this may not be useful as it does not tell us their purpose.

  L - This means that we cannot be certain from observations that reciprocity or synchrony are important in development.

  C - There is some evidence from other sources, e.g. Isabella et al. (1989), to suggest that good levels of reciprocity and synchrony are associated with good quality attachments. This means that, on balance, these early interactions are likely to have importance for development.
• What are the stages of attachment?

  Asocial stage

  Indiscriminate attachment

  Specific attachment

  Multiple attachments
• What is the asocial stage?


  (first few weeks).

  Baby's behaviour towards people and inanimate objects is quite similar. Some preference for familiar people (more easily calmed by them). Babies are also happier in the presence of other people.
• What is the indiscriminate attachment?

  (2—7 months).

  Babies now display more observable social behaviour, with a preference for people rather than inanimate objects. They recognise and prefer familiar people. Babies do not show stranger or separation anxiety. Attachment is indiscriminate because it's the same toward
• What is the specific attachment?

  (from around 7 months).

  Stranger anxiety and separation anxiety when separated from one particular person. Baby is said to have formed a specific attachment with the primary attachmentfigure. This is in most cases the person who offers the most interaction and responds to the baby's 'signals' with the most skill (the mother in 65% of cases).
• What is the multiple attachment?

  (by one year).

  Secondary attachments with other adults form shortly after. In Schaffer and Emerson's study, 29% of babies had secondary (multiple) attachments within a month of forming a primary (specific) attachment. By the age of one year the majority of infants had multiple secondary attachments.
• What is Schaffer and Emerson's procedure?

  60 babies from Glasgow, most from working-class families. Researchers visited babies and mothers at home every month for a year and again at 18 months. Separation anxiety measured by asking mothers about their children's behaviour during everyday separations (e.g. adult leaving the room). Stranger anxiety was measured by asking mothers questions about their children's anxiety response to unfamiliar adults
• What is Schaffer and Emerson's findings?

  Babies developed attachments through a sequence of stages, from asocial through to a specific attachment to multiple attachments — as outlined above. The specific attachment tended to be to the person who was most interactive and sensitive to babies' signals and facial expressions (i.e. reciprocity). This was not necessarily the person the baby spent most time with
• What is a strength of Schaffer and Emerson's study? (external validity)


  P - One strength of Schaffer and Emerson's study is that it has external validity.

  E - Most of the observations (not stranger anxiety) were made by parents during ordinary activities and reported to researchers.

  E - The alternative would be to have observers present in the babies' homes. This may have distracted the babies or made them feel more anxious.

  L - This means it is highly likely that the participants behaved naturally while being observed.

  C - Mothers may have been biased in what they reported, e.g. they might not have noticed when their baby was showing signs of anxiety or may have misremembered it. This means that even if babies behaved naturally their behaviour may not have been accurately recorded.
• What is a strength of Schaffer and Emerson's study? (poor evidence for the asocial stage)

  P - One limitation is poor evidence for the asocial stage.

  E - Because of their stage of physical development young babies have poor co-ordination and are fairly immobile.

  E - This makes it difficult for mothers to accurately report signs of anxiety and attachment for this age group.

  L - This means the babies might actually be quite social but, because of flawed methods, they appear to be asocial.
• What is a limitation of Schaffer and Emerson's study? (real-world application to day care)


  P - Another strength is real-world application to day care

  E - In the early stages (asocial and indiscriminate attachments) babies can be comforted by any skilled adult.

  E - But if a child starts day care later, during the stage of specific attachments, care from an unfamiliar adult may cause distress and longer-term problems.

  L - This means that Schaffer and Emerson's stages can help parents making day care decisions.
• What is the role of the father? (primary attachment)

  Primary attachment usually with mothers but sometimes both

  Schaffer and Emerson (1964) of babies became found that the majority attached to their mother first happens around (this 7 months). In only 3% of cases the father was the first sole object of attachment In 27% of cases the father was the joint first object of attachment with the mother.
• How many babies eventually form secondary attachments with father?

  75% eventually form secondary attachments with father. In 75% of babies studied an attachment was formed with the father by the age of 18 months. This was indicated by the fact the babies protested when their father walked away, a sign of attachment.
• What is the distinctive role for the father?

  Grossmann et al. (2002) carried out a longitudinal study looking at parents' behaviour and its relationship to the quality of children's attachments into their teens. This research found that quality of attachment with the father was less important for adolescent attachment than the quality of attachment with the mother. Therefore fathers may be less important in long-term emotional development. However, Grossmann et al. also found that the quality of fathers' play with babies was related to quality of adolescent attachments. This suggests that fathers have a different rc!e in attachment, one that is more to do with play and stimulation and less to do with emotional care.
• Can fathers be primary attachment figures?

  Some evidence suggests that when fathers do take on the role of being the main caregiver they adopt behaviours more typical of mothers.Some evidence suggests that when fathers do take on the role of being the main caregiver they adopt behaviours more typical of mothers. that primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating and holding babies than secondary caregiver fathers. These behaviours are related to interactional synchrony and the formation of an emotional attachment (Isabella et al. 1989)
• What is most important in role of the father?

  Level of response is most important. Smiling, imitating and holding babies (interactional synchrony) are behaviours that are important in building a primary (emotional) attachment with a baby. So it seems the father can be the more 'emotional' attachment figure. The key to the attachment relationship is the level of responsiveness not the gender of the parent.
• What is a limitation of the role of the father? (confusion over research questions)

  P - One limitation is confusion over research questions

  E - Some psychologists want to understand the role of fathers as secondary attachment figures. But others are more concerned with fathers as a primary attachment figure.

  E - The former have tended to see fathers as behaving differently from mothers and having a distinct role. The latter have found that fathers can take on a 'maternal' role.

  L - This means psychologists cannot easily answer the simple question: what is the role of the father?
• What is a limitation of the role of the father? (conflicting evidence)

  P - One limitation is conflicting evidence from different methodologies.

  E - Grossmann et al. (2002) suggest fathers have a distinct role in children's development, involving play and stimulation.

  E - However, McCallum and Golombok (2004) found that children without a father do not develop differently

  L - This means the question of whether fathers have a distinctive role remains unanswered.

  C - Findings may not be in conflict. Fathers may typically take on particular roles in two-parent heterosexual families. Other family structures adapt to not having fathers. This means that findings may be clear after all — there may be a distinctive role for fathers when present, but families adapt to not having one
• What is a strength of the role of the father? (findings in parenting advice)

  P - One strength is using findings in parenting advice.

  E - Mothers may feel pressured to stay at home and fathers to focus on work. This may not be the best solution for all families.

  E - Research on the flexibility of the role of the father can be used to offer reassuring advice to parents.

  L - This means that parental anxiety about the role of fathers can be reduced and parenting decisions made easier.
• What is Lorenz's procedure?


  Konrad Lorenz randomly divided a large clutch of goose eggs: • One half were hatched with the mother goose in their natural environment. • The other half hatched in an incubator where the first moving object they saw was Lorenz. Mixed all goslings together to see whom they would follow. Lorenz also observed birds and their later courtship behaviour.
• What were Lorenz's findings?

  Incubator group followed Lorenz, control group followed the mother. Lorenz identified a critical period in which imprinting needs to take place, e.g. few hours after hatching. If imprinting did not occur within that time, chicks did not attach themselves to the mother figure. Sexual imprinting also occurs whereby the birds acquire a template of the desirable characteristics required in a mate.
• What is a strength of Lorenz's study? (concept of imprinting)


  P - One strength is support for the concept of imprinting

  E - Regolin and Vallortigara (1995) exposed chicks to simple shape-combinations that moved

  E - When shown a range of moving shapes the chicks followed these in preference to other shapes

  L -
• What is a limitation of Lorenz's study? (generalising from birds to humans)


  P - One limitation is generalising from birds to humans.

  E - The mammalian attachment system is quite different from imprinting in birds.

  E - For example, mammalian mothers show more emotional attachment to their young.

  L - This means that it may not be appropriate to generalise Lorenz's ideas about imprinting to humans.
• What is Harlow's procedure?

  Harry Harlow reared 16 rhesus monkeys with two wire model 'mothers' (see picture below left): Condition 1 — milk was dispensed by the plain-wire 'mother'. Condition 2 — milk was dispensed by the cloth-covered 'mother'. The monkeys' preferences were measured. To measure attachment-like behaviour, Harlow observed how the monkeys reacted when placed in frightening situations. For example, Harlow added a noisy mechanical teddy bear to the environment. Harlow and his colleagues also continued to study the monkeys who had been deprived of their 'real' mother into adulthood.
• What were Harlow's findings?

  Baby monkeys cuddled the cloth-covered mother in preference to the plain-wire mother regardless of which dispensed milk. This suggests that contact comfort was of more importance than food when it came to attachment behaviour. The monkeys sought comfort from the cloth-covered mother when frightened. As adults, the monkeys who had been deprived of their real mothers z suffered severe consequences — they were more aggressive, less sociable and less skilled in mating than other monkeys.
• What is a strength of Harlow's study? (real-world value)


  P - One strength is that Harlow's research has real-world value.

  E - It has helped social workers understand risk factors in child abuse and thus intervene to prevent it (Howe 1998).

  E - We also now understand the importance of attachment figures for baby monkeys in zoos and breeding programmes

  L - This means that Harlow's research has benefitted both animals and humans.
• What is a limitation of Harlow's study? (generalising from monkeys to humans)

  P - One limitation is generalising from moneys to humans

  E - Monkeys are clearly more similar to humans than Lorenz's geese, and all mammals share some similarities in their attachment system

  E - However they are not human and in some ways the human mind and behaviour are much more complex.

  L - This means that it may not be appropriate to generalise Harlow's findings to humans.
• What is cupboard love?

  Importance of food. This is sometimes called the 'cupboard love' explanation because it emphasises the importance of food attachment formation. Children in learn to love whoever feeds them.
• What is the role of classical conditioning?

  Classical conditioning involves learning to two stimuli. In associate attachment: UCS (food) leads to UCR (a feeling of pleasure). This response is not learned so it is an unconditioned response (unlearned)
• What does the baby learn?

  Baby learns that mother produces a sense of pleasure. A caregiver (e.g. mother) starts as a NS, i.e. something that produces no response. However, when the caregiver provides food over time, he/she becomes associated with 'food'. So the neutral stimulus becomes a CS. Once conditioning has taken place the sight of the caregiver produces a CR of pleasure. According to a learning theorist, the conditioned pleasure response is the basis of love. Now an attachment has formed and the caregiver becomes an attachmentfigure
• What is the role of operant conditioning?

  Operant conditioning explains why babies cry for comfort (an important building block for attachment). Crying leads to a response from the caregiver (e.g. feeding). As long as the caregiver provides the correct response, crying is reinforced because it produces a pleasurable consequence