Psychopatholgy

• Definitions of psychological abnormality proposed by psychologists

  • Statistical infrequency
  • Deviation from social norms
  • Failure to function adequately
  • Deviation from ideal mental health
• Statistical infrequency


  Any behaviour that is numerically uncommon can be thought of as abnormal
• Less than 3% of individuals have an IQ score of below 70
• Individuals who have an IQ score of below 70 are liable to receive a diagnosis of intellectual disability
• Deviation from social norms


  Anyone who does not adhere to these social norms is classed as abnormal
• Failure to function adequately


  Abnormality can be judged in terms of the failure to cope with the demands of everyday life
• Deviation from ideal mental health

  The absence of Jahoda's 6 criteria for ideal mental health indicates abnormality and potentially a psychological disorder
• Mental disorders are characterised by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion and behaviour
• Three of the most common mental disorders are phobias, depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
• Clinicians working the field of psychopathology have developed diagnostic manuals to help them diagnose mental disorders accurately
• The most recent update of the DSM is the DSM-5
• The most recent update of the ICD is the ICD-10
• Phobias


  A type of anxiety disorder characterised by an irrational, persistent and overwhelming fear of an object or situation
• Approximately 5 – 10% of people will suffer from a phobia at some point
• Types of phobia recognised by the DSM-5

  • Specific phobia
  • Social phobia
  • Agoraphobia
• Specific phobia


  Sufferers show an irrational, persistent and overwhelming fear of a specific object or situation
• Social phobia


  Sufferers show an irrational, persistent and overwhelming fear of social situations
• Agoraphobia


  Sufferers show an irrational, persistent and overwhelming fear of being in a place or situation that it would be difficult or embarrassing to get out of, or where you might not be able to get help if you have a panic attack
• Cognitive characteristics of phobias

  • Irrational thinking
  • Recognition of irrational thinking
• Emotional characteristics of phobias

  • Anxiety
  • Fear
• Behavioural characteristics of phobias

  • Avoidance
  • Endurance
• The behavioural approach to explaining phobias suggests that phobias are learnt through classical and operant conditioning
• Two-process model


  Phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning
• Acquisition of phobias through classical conditioning

  1. Neutral stimulus is associated with a traumatic incident

  2. Neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that triggers a fear response
• Watson & Rayner (1920) demonstrated how a phobia can be acquired through classical conditioning
• Operant conditioning in the maintenance of phobias

  Avoiding the feared stimulus is negatively reinforced, so the phobia is maintained
• Operant conditioning


  Learning through consequences
• According to operant conditioning, if a behaviour is reinforced, it is more likely that it will be repeated
• By avoiding the feared stimulus, the sufferer avoids fear
• The sufferer will therefore repeat the behaviour of avoiding the feared stimulus due to negative reinforcement
• This means that the sufferer will fail to face their fear, so their phobia will be maintained
• Social learning theory


  Phobias may be learnt through the observation and imitation of a role model, such as a parent
• Diathesis-stress model


  Individuals are born with a genetic vulnerability to developing a phobia, but the phobia will only manifest itself if it is triggered by a traumatic event
• Biological preparedness


  Humans are genetically programmed to acquire fears of things that would have been a source of danger in our evolutionary past (e.g. snakes, rats, heights)
• The behavioural approach to treating phobias is based upon the principles of classical conditioning
• Systematic desensitisation


  A behavioural treatment for phobias developed by Wolpe (1958)
• Systematic desensitisation


  1. Desensitisation hierarchy

  2. Relaxation

  3. Exposure
• Systematic desensitisation is an effective treatment for phobias
• Flooding


  A behavioural treatment for phobias where the patient is immediately exposed to their most feared situation
• Flooding


  1. Relaxation

  2. Exposure