Approaches

• Main approaches in psychology

  • The learning approaches (Behaviourism, Social learning theory)
  • The cognitive approach
  • The biological approach
  • The psychodynamic approach
  • Humanistic psychology
• Behaviourism


  The behaviourist approach suggests that psychology should restrict itself to studying observable behaviours that can be measured directly
• Classical conditioning


  Learning through association
• Classical conditioning


  1. All animals are born with natural reflexes (UCS and UCR)

  2. A neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with the UCS

  3. If the NS is consistently paired with the UCS, it will be associated with the UCS

  4. The NS becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the response to the CS is the conditioned response (CR)
• Pavlov demonstrated that dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell
• Operant conditioning


  Learning through consequences
• Operant conditioning


  1. If a behaviour is reinforced, it is more likely to be repeated (positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement)

  2. If a behaviour is punished, it is less likely to be repeated
• Skinner developed the Skinner box to investigate operant conditioning in rats
• Cognitive approach


  Unobservable mental processes can be studied scientifically
• Theoretical models


  Simplified representations of mental processes based upon research evidence
• Computer analogy


  The mind works in a similar way to a computer
• Schemas


  Packages of information and ideas developed through experience that act as a framework for the interpretation of incoming information
• Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
• Schemas


  Mental frameworks that help us make sense of the world and process a huge amount of information quickly
• Schemas can prevent us from becoming overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
• Schemas may also cause us to exclude important information and focus only on things that confirm our pre-existing beliefs and ideas
• Schemas can lead to errors
• Cognitive neuroscience


  The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
• It is only in the last 20 years, with advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI, that scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neural basis of mental processes
• Tulving et al. (1994) was able to demonstrate how different types of long term memory (LTM) may be located on opposite sides of the pre-frontal cortex
• Strengths of the cognitive approach

  • It has employed highly controlled and rigorous methods of study, enabling reliable and objective data collection and accurate conclusions
  • It has established a credible scientific basis through the emergence of cognitive neuroscience
  • It has many applications, such as the development of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) for psychological disorders
• Weaknesses of the cognitive approach

  • Research on mental processes often lacks validity due to the use of artificial stimuli that may not represent everyday experiences
  • The computer analogy is over-simplistic as it ignores the influence of human emotion on information processing
• Biological approach

  Explain all aspects of psychological functioning in terms of physical factors within the body, including genes, biological structures, and neurochemistry
• Behavioural geneticists


  Study whether psychological traits are inherited in the same way as physical traits
• Twin studies


  Investigate the influence of genes on behaviour by comparing the similarity of traits between monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins
• Genotype


  The genetic make-up of an individual
• Phenotype


  The observable characteristics of an individual, influenced by both genes and the environment
• Nervous system


  A specialised network of cells that enables communication between all parts of the body, divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• Neurons


  Specialised cells that transmit electrical impulses (action potentials) to provide the nervous system with its primary means of communication
• Cerebrum


  The largest area of the brain, split into two cerebral hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum and divided into four main lobes
• Neurotransmitters


  Chemicals that act as messengers to transmit electrical impulses from one neuron to another across the synapse
• Evolution


  The changes that take place in the characteristics of a population over time, driven by the mechanism of natural selection
• Strengths of the biological approach

  • It uses highly controlled and objective scientific methods of investigation, increasing the scientific credibility of psychology
  • It has significant applications to the real world, such as the development of drug treatments for psychological disorders
• Weaknesses of the biological approach

  • Twin studies rely on the assumption of equivalent environments for MZ and DZ twins, which may not be valid
  • It is reductionist, only considering the influence of biology and ignoring other factors that influence behaviour
• Psychodynamic approach


  Emphasises the role of the unconscious motives and desires as well as early childhood experiences in shaping behaviour
• Conscious mind


  The part of the mind that we are aware of
• Unconscious mind


  The part of the mind that we are unaware of, which Freud believed is a vast storehouse of drives and instincts that significantly influence our behaviour
• ID


  The primitive, irrational and selfish part of the personality that operates solely in the unconscious mind and demands immediate gratification
• Ego


  The rational part of the personality that operates in the conscious and unconscious mind, mediating between the ID and the superego
• Superego


  The internalised sense of right and wrong that operates in the conscious and unconscious mind, representing the moral standards passed on from the same-sex parent