General Psychology Exam 3

• Working Memory

  A) Seconds

  B) Temporary

  C) Information

  D) Attention

  
• Three Stages Model of Memory

  A) Sensory

  B) Attention

  C) Encoding

  D) Short

  E) Term

  F) Rehearsal

  G) Interference

  H) Maintenance

  I) Recoding

  J) Retrieval

  K) Long

  L) Term

  M) Retrieve

  N) Storage

  
• Main Processes of memory

  • Encoding: initially registering/being conscious of information
  • En: info in
  • Coding: neural signals
  • creating connections of neurons, codes&stores information; use or lose; using is retrieval practice
  • Storage: maintaining info over time
  • processing: really thinking about information, draw connections
  • Retrieval: recovering from memory making neurons fire, it enhances that memory
  • information recalled, retrieval practice
  • Storage & Retrieval are intertwined
• Stage 1: Sensory Memory

  • Capacity: Large
  • sense organs constantly taking in information
  • Duration: Brief, no more than 2 seconds
  • Types: iconic & echoic
  • Function: preserve sensations give more time to recognize
• Stage 2: Short Term Memory

  • Capacity: very small
  • magic #7 +-2
  • Duration: 10 - 30 seconds
  • can be increased by:
  • maintenance rehearsal
  • recoding
  • Function: recode info as it moves from sensory to LTM, AND work with info retrieved from LTM
• Stage 3: Long Term Memory

  • Capacity: unlimited
  • Duration: potentially unlimited
  • however, decay is possible (forget)
  • Function: Storage
• Stage 1: Sensory Memory

  • Registers info about environment in original sensory form
  • no encoding has happened yet, not yet changed so brain can understand
  • eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin, sight, smell, touch
  • Types of sensory memory:
  • Iconic: sensory memory for visual information
  • e.g. afterimages: eyes are taking pictures constantly, fireworks, sparklers
  • Echoic: sensory memory for sound memory
  • e.g. echoes
  • Function is to preserve sensations in enough time to do something about it
• Stage 2: Short term memory

  • A temporary memory stage for info from sensory & LTM
  • working memory: where work with or process information
  • Where combine STM & relate to long term information, holding dock for memory
  • Interference: new info bumps old out of STM
• Stage 2: Short term memory

  • Increased:
  • Chunking: grouping stimuli into familiar single unit (1-800-THE GIANT)
  • Maintenance rehearsal: mentally/verbally repeating information
  • maintain=keep, re-hear;
  • loops in STM keeps active
  • Recoding: converting info from original form to one that is easily stored&retrieved
  • Enegram/memory trace: neural connections representing a piece of information
  • neurons who didn't use to talk now do, are now coded, collection of neurons firing
  • Function: do the hard work to manipulate or understand it
  • compare to things you already know
• Stage 3: Long Term Memory

  • A memory stage that holds info over time
  • There is not a single place where memories are stored, it is dispersed throughout the brain corresponding to what type it is
  • eyesight - occipital
  • auditory - temporal
  • emotional - amygdala
• Levels of Processing/REcoding

  • Shallow processing: focusing on superficial aspects of the information
  • Ex: maintenance rehearsal: focusing on how it sounds, not what it means
  • Ex: memorization: memorizing basic information not the meaning
  • Caveat: only some things can be memorized like times tables
  • Deep processing: focusing on the meaning of the information
• Deep processing

  • elaborative rehearsal: focusing on the meaning of the new information by relating it to information you already know (IN LTM)
  • Ex: create analogies such as...
  • the structure of a neuron is like a tree, dreams are like the heat from a light bulb
  • Ex: reword definitions
  • put into own words & means something more & sticks better
  • Ex: make up new examples
  • based on general knowledge
  • Self Reference Effect: relating new info to yourself
  • Ex: come up with examples from life
  • Ex: come up with examples having to do with self
  • More information in LTM about self than anything else
• Deep processing

  • Visual Imagery: creating a visual image linked to new info
  • Ex: use pictures & diagrams from book
  • Ex: draw a picture / diagram
  • Ex: visualize examples
• Deep processing: all about pulling it out of LTM

  • The testing effect (retrieval practice): recalling information without "help"
  • Ex: flashcards
  • Ex: answer questions in the text book
  • Ex: complete online quizzes
  • Ex: teach it to someone
• Personality:

  • The combined pattern of thoughts, emotions, & behaviors that define how a person typically responds to their world
  • Ex: thought pattern, person can be really judgy vs really accepting
  • Ex: emotions, person has a temper vs takes a lot for them to get upset
  • Ex: behaviors, person regularly acts on their anger
• Trait

  • A specific characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking or feeling
  • We only know some traits of outside people we know such as celebrity, traits that stand out
• Personality:

  • collection / combination / ALL of the things that make up a person

  Personality+Trait:

  • emotions, thoughts, behavior pattern, typical, habitual

  Trait:

  • specific, some of the things
• Personality Traits

  • Criteria for personality traits (not circumstantial)
  • " Consistency " across situations
  • person is exhibiting a particular trait across different situations
  • " stability " over time
  • person has particular trait ever since teens, adult, elderly
  • " Distinctiveness " or variation among people is measurable from person to person
  • Personality can change due to an event or age
  • Personality is solidified among teenage years
• Trait Theory of Personality

  • Traits categorized as surface or source
  • Surface traits: traits that are easily observed
  • person that has 1 surface trait is likely to have another
  • 1,000s
  • Source traits: basic dimensions of Personality from which surface traits are derived
  • Just a few
  • Source: Extraversion, Surface traits: talkative, social, energetic
  • Factor Analysis: a statistical method that detects relations among items on a scale
  • Gordon Allport, Lexical Approach: assumes all the important ways in which individuals differ are represented by words
  • 18,000 words, minus synonyms, 4,000+
• Source Traits that make up the big 5:

  • Openess to experience
  • Conscientiousness
  • Extraversion
  • Agreeableness
  • Neuroticism (Negative Emotionality)
  • people researched to create these: 3,071

  There are 5 source traits; each runs on a continuum from low to high
• Source Traits of Big five:

  • Source: Openess to experience
  • Surface:
  • High- Person does things differently, seeks external excitement
  • Low- practical, prefer familiar
  • Source: Conscientiousness
  • Surface:
  • High- productive, organized
  • Low- disorganized, not dependable
  • Source: Extraversion
  • Surface:
  • High- social, assertive, annoying
  • Low- quiet, reserved
• Source Traits of Big Five:

  • Source: Agreeableness
  • Surface:
  • High- cooperative, respectful, trusting
  • Low- uncooperative, competitive, rude
  • Source: Neuroticism
  • Surface:
  • High- emotionally unstable, sensitive
  • Low- calm, resilient
• Measuring/Assessing Personality

  • Characteristics of a scientifically accurate personality test
  • Scores are objective
  • no room for interpretation
  • Scores vary
  • Scores are continuous (not "type")
  • like Myers-Brigg Type Indicator arbitrary cut off
  • Scores have been standardized
  • consistent
  • Scores have high reliability and validity
• Reliability for big 5:

  • When a person takes the test on different occasions, they get similar results
  • Change is half a standard deviations
  • Time 1 on IQ test: 105
  • Time 2 on IQ test: close to 105

  Validity for big 5:

  • Scores on the test accurately predict related behaviors (i.e. it measures what it claims to measure
  • Ex: high on neuroticism, acts like Eeyore
  • Ex: IQ test score predict GPA
  • Ex: Low on openness, person sticks with one piece of media, has conventional job
• Pros & Cons of Trait Theory:

  • Pro: Big 5 traits are universal/same 5 traits in all cultures
  • all humans have these 5 source traits and can be measured
  • Pro: a few source traits can give a (fairly) comprehensive description of people
  • Con: this approach / theory does not explain why you have the personality you do
• Biological Perspective: differences in personality are due to genes and nervous system activity
• Genetics & Biology of Personality Traits

  • Adoption Studies
  • Adopted Kids on the BIG FIVE score is most similar to their biological parent's
  • Twin Studies
  • Identical Twins score similarly no matter if raised in same or different household
  • Treated as same people
  • Fraternal Twins don't score similarly
  • Treated as different people
• Are there any genes related to personality traits

  • DR4R
  • Involved with Dopamine production
  • Associated with Sensation Seeking
  • Took the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale, lowest can score (8), highest score (40), 8 question with a scale of 1-5
  • Average range is 23-33
  • 2 versions: long and short
  • long: is less efficient at producing Dopamine
  • Short: better at producing Dopamine
  • Exciting activity->release of DA & positive emotions
  • linked to gene combinations
• Are there any genes related to personality traits

  • DR4R
  • 3 gene combinations:
  • Long&Long:
  • Score higher on BSSS
  • not as good at producing DA
  • Long&Short:
  • Score mid range on BSSS
  • not as good at producing DA
  • Short&Short:
  • Score low on BSSS
  • better at producing DA
• • Eyesenk's biological perspective on personality
  • Extraversion and cerebral cortex (cerebral cortex is involved in complex), he claimed that personality is biologically determined
  • Introvert's baseline is near optimal level with low sensory external stimulation
  • Extrovert's baseline is lower than an introverts with low sensory external stimulation
• Differences in biology explain differences in high extraversion and low extraversion

  A) Low on Extraversion

  B) Baseline

  C) a lot of stimulation

  D) High on Extraversion

  E) Baseline

  
• • Neuroticism and amygdala
  • People who score high on negative emotionality, have a lot of activity in the amygdala
  • Neuroticism and amygdala activity are positively correlated
• • Conscientiousness and prefrontal cortex
  • people who score high on conscientiousness, have a lot of activity in prefrontal cortex
  • Levels of conscientiousness and levels of activity in prefrontal cortex are positively correlated
  • Prefrontal cortex is involved with logical thinking, decision making, planning
• Is personality related to patterns of brain activity?

  • Scores on extraversion and cerebral cortex activity
  • Scores on neuroticism and amygdala activity
  • Scores on conscientiousness and prefrontal cortex activity
• Personality and Environment

  • Our behaviors varies across situation and time
  • Behavior is patterns of behaving, thinking, feeling (personality)
  • Walter Mischel: studied how personalities change over situation, studied how honesty varied across situation
  • claimed that personality doesn't exist
  • Albert Bandura: there is a stable level, but fluctuate in situation, made reciprocal determinism model
  • Reciprocal Determinism: the two way interaction between a person's cognitions, behaviors, & their environment that shapes personality
• Personality and Environment

  • The "Environment" is not one single factor
  • shared environment- living conditions family members share
  • non shared environment- unique aspects of a person's life not shared with family
• How do shared and non shared environments contribute to our personality?

  • The shared home environment has little effect on personality
  • Twins are similar no matter their environments, adoptive children grow to be more like their biological parents
  • Few parents have a consistent child rearing style: kids have different personalities
  • Non shared environment has a relatively large effect on personality
• Nature & Nurture of Big 5 Personality Traits

  • vast majority of score is due to genes and experiences (that aren't shared)
• Cultural Influences on Personality

  • Values differ across cultures
  • Individualist cultures: people see themselves as autonomous & their own goals are prized above relations with others
  • America, Canada, Australia, West Europe
  • Collectivist cultures: people see themselves as "embedded" in relationships and group harmony is prized above their own
  • Asian, most African, most latin-american, most Eastern Europe
• Normal Curve:

  • A graph that shows what the mean is, the highest point on the graph, and is symmetrical.
  • Helps make easy comparisons
  • A normal pattern takers fall into

  Standardized Test:

  • Comparability, helps participants determine where they lie and what scores mean
  • a test given to a large representative sample, representative to the population

  High Reliabilty:

  • gives consistent results

  High validity:

  • Measures & predict accurately