Global Commons

• 'Global commons' refers to resource domains or areas that lie outside of the political research of any one nation state; supra-national 'spaces'
• International law recognises four global commons:

  • High seas
  • Atmosphere
  • Antarctica
  • Outer Space
• Law relating to global commons is guided by the common heritage of mankind principle. This affirms the natural resources are held in common by all nations, they are to be distributed equitably for the benefit of everyone
• 'Tragedy of the commons' explains why shared common access resources are over exploited: individuals act independently and according to self-interest, contrary to the interest of the group. This has led to fish stocks depleting as a result of overfishing
• Each global common is covered by a number of international laws or treaties:

  • High sea by the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
  • Atmosphere by the UNFCCC plus other agreements e.g. Paris Climate Accord
  • Antarctica by the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)
  • Outer space by the Outer Space Treaty (1967)
• Antarctica is mostly south of the Antarctic circle, except some parts of the East Antarctic coastline and the Antarctic Peninsula which extend north from West Antarctica by 65 S
• Largest of the Antarctic ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf in the Ross Sea and the Ronne Ice Shelf in the Weddell Sea - each of these cover and area greater than the British Isles
• In spring 2000, the Southern Ocean, also known as Antarctic Ocean was delimited and contains southern portions of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Ocean, comprises the southernmost waters of the world
• At 60 degrees south latitutde, cold northward flowing waters from the Antarctic meet warmer sub-Antarctic waters - created the Antarctic Convergence Zone
• Antarctic Convergence Zone

  • 32-48 km wide
  • Extends across the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans between 48th and 61st south latitudes
  • Cold, northward flowing Antarctic waters sink beneath sub-Antarctic waters
  • Create upwelling currents perfect for krill
  • Natural boundary separating: two hydrological regions, area of distinct climate and areas of distinct wildlife
• Antarctic Circumpolar Current - blocks warmer waters travelling southwards; flows in a eastward direction driven by westerly winds
• A lesser current closer to Antarctica flows in a westward direction, known as the East Wind Drift, and is driven by easterly polar winds. Where the two currents meet is the zone of Antarctic Divergence
• Geography of Antarctica

  • 98% covered by glacial ice
  • Unevenly divided into East (greater) Antarctica and West (lesser) Antarctica
  • Separated by Transantarctic mountains with a peak above 4000m
  • East Antarctic ice sheet much thicker and older than the West
  • Average height of 2500m above sea level, the highest continent, but this height comes from ice sheets
• Climate of Antarctica

  • Average temperature of -50 C, can be as low as -89 C
  • Mean annual wind speed of 50 miles per hour as a result of convergent katabatic (wind downslope) winds
  • Mean annual precipitation less than 50mm a year
  • Polar desert
• High mountain peaks called nunataks are pinnacles of rock emerging above ice sheets like islands in a sea, these are some of the only ice free places in Antarctica
• Upwelling of colder water from the ocean depth brings nutrients, which support phytoplankton which provide food for Antarctic krill
• Some coastal Antarctic Peninsula area have micro-climate and topographic conditions which cause enough melting in the summer months to allow some land to remain free of ice, this is thought to increase due to climate change
• Threats to Antarctica

  • Climate Change
  • Fishing and Whaling
  • Search for Minerals
  • Tourism and Scientific Research
• Whaling in Antarctica

  • Oceans near Antarctica are feeding ground for 80% of the world's great whales
  • Whaling began inthe 19th century and as numbers deplete, people turn to the Southern Ocean
  • Whaling stations established on South Georgia, South Shetlands
  • Products included oil, whale bone and whale meat
  • By 1960s, whale populations declined by 90%
  • International Whaling Commission (IWC) stopped whaling in 1986, but there is still a threat from Japan
• Fishing in Antarctica

  • In 1960s, Russian ships began to exploit the ocean for fish such as Antarctic toothfish
  • Concerns over fishing from Russia and Japan fishing krill
  • Krill = tiny shrimp-like crustaceans which swim in large numbers, crucial part of the food web, relied on by penguins, seals and other fish. Krill are being farmed for krill oil which is rich in omega-3 and helps prevent strokes and depressions. increase in demand has lef to long-term decline in krill biomass.
  • Commercial fishing is a significant threat, high risk of overfishing and destruction of habitats by ships and wste
• Climate Change - West and Antarctic Peninsula

  • Seen an air temperature increase of nearly 3 C in the west
  • Antarctic Peninsula seen a 1 C increase
  • Led to melting of snow and ice cover
  • Glaciers and ice shelves retreating and collapse
  • Thwaites Glacier on the west coast melting more quickly than thought, unusally broad and will add 63cm to sea levels if it collapses
  • Ronne and Ross sea ice shelves won't increase sea levels, but destabilise further glaciers
• Climate Change - East Antarctica

  • Sea ice is expanding, at an all time high in 2014 at 20.11 million sqkm, this can be blown by the wind and taken by currents to expand and bond with other sheets
  • Increasing westerly winds caused by climate change and ozone depletion are driving seas northwards
  • More rain and snow layers on the southern ocean
  • Storms freshen water so it is less salty and the temperature for sea ice raises
  • Melting continental land ice creates icebergs
• Antarctica - Ocean Acidification

  Decline in pH of water results from increase in atmospheric CO2 concentrations creating carbonic acid. This poses a threat to the marine environments of the Southern Ocean. Rapid rate of acidification make adapting difficult
• Search for Mineral Resources in Antarctica

  • Never been commercial mining, banned by AT
  • Future demand for resources puts pressure on this
  • Difficult condiitons make exploitation unlikely and unviable
  • Attempt to mine raised in 1980s, but was countered by the Madrid Protocol, Antarctica is protected from exploitation until 2048
• Tourism in Antarctica

  • Seaborne Tourism = usually a cruise departing from Ushuaia in Argentina or Punta Arenas in Chile with the opportunity to transfer to smaller boats to get closer
  • Airborne Tourism = flying from Australia, New Zealand or South America, can involve scenic flights over the continent and potential landing
  • Fly-cruises = flights land on King George Island where visitors then take a cruise boat
• Tourism in Antarctica has grown from just a few hundred special visitors in late 1950s to nearly 56,000 in 2018-2010
• International Association of Antarctic Tour Operator (IAATO) ensures there are regulations in place:

  • no large ships with more than 500 people, ships small with 50-200 people
  • groups landing must be in groups of around 20
  • briefing tourists on code of behaviour including adherence to health and safety requirements
  • limiting on visiting sites, each site may only be visited every 3-4 days
• Negative Impacts of Tourism in Antarctica

  • Disturbance of fragile ecosystem
  • Tourist season coincides with peak breeding season for wildlife
  • Terns disturbed by visitors may abandon nests
  • Overflying planes may cause stress
  • May bring alien species
  • Oil Spills
• Mitigation, Resilience and Adaption through Tourism

  • Tourism well governed with strict rules set by IAATO
  • Regulations accepted
  • Visitors become ambassadors, voicing the need for its preservation
  • Visitors tend to be well educated and receptive to conservation
  • SPRI findings show tourism has had minimal impact
• The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) monitors the resilience and adaption to these disturbances and also the effect of mitigation measures
• Resilience within Antarctica

  • Gives an ecosystem the ability to recover from 'shock' events.
  • Endemic (native) species usually more resilient as they evolve strategies to allow their populations to rebuild and recover
• Adaption within Antarctica

  • Ability of an ecosystem to return to an equilibrium status
  • Some organisms may benefit in the short term to climate change, whilst others may be more vulnerable and their ability to adapt is slower
• Mitigation within Antarctica

  • Intervention by humans to eliminate or reduce impacts presented by threats
  • Antarctica requires governance of a continental land mass with agreements at a global level
• The Antarctic Treaty was drafted in 1959 during the Cold War, and was ratified by an original 12 member nations to come into force in June 1961
• The Antarctic Treaty formalised the notion that Antarctica does not 'belong' to any single nation
• The Antarctic Treaty:

  • Stipulates that Antarctica be used exclusively for peaceful purposes
  • Guarantees continued freedom for scientific research
  • Promotes scientific co-ordination including exchanging research plans and sharing research results
  • Freezes any claims to sovereignty for the duration of the treaty
  • Includes a dispute settlement procedure and a review mechanism by which the treaty can be modified
• The Antarctic Treaty operates on a consensus regardless of size or status, the Soviet Union and the USA have equal power with other nations such as New Zealand and South Africa
• 1980s Increasing Pressure on Antarctic Resources:

  • Countries such as China and India had signed the Antarctic Treaty with the interest of gaining influence in the control of resources in Antarctica
  • Some member states wanted to negotiate management of fisheries
  • A Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities was proposed in 1988 that would have allowed exploration for minerals
• History of Governance in Antarctica

  • Pre WW2 = Seven countries made territorial claims on sections of Antarctica either due to exploration history or being supra-adjacent nations
  • 1957-1958 = Scientists appeal to the UN to establish International Geophysical Year, was a great success
  • 1959-1961 = IGY success led to the Antarctic Treaty
  • 1980s = Increased demand and pressure on resources led to a negotiation for mining, led to further protection and Antarctic Treaty System
• History of Governance in Antarctica (2)

  • 1991-1998 = The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Madrid Protocol) signed and ratified, giving Antarctica further protection until 2048
  • 1994 = Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary designed by IWC, 23 members supported, Japan opposed
  • 2017 = World's largest Marine Protected Area (MPA) was designed in the Ross Sea by CCAMLR, 72% protected
  • 2018 = Japan leaves IWC, China and Russia and in favour of further explotiation, blocked plans for a larger MPA in Weddell Sea